Tattalin Arzikin Siyasa na Amsar Cutar Cutar ta Amurka ⋆ Cibiyar Brownstone Gigi Foster, Paul Frijters

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Gabatarwa da Takaitaccen Bayani

Fiye da watanni talatin bayan bullar SARS-CoV-2 a matakin duniya, lokaci ya yi da jama'a za su tantance martanin Amurka game da kwayar cutar, tare da mai da hankali musamman kan tattalin arziki.

Duka kwayar cutar da kuma shawarar manufofinmu da aka yanke don mayar da martani game da ita sun yi wa Amurka illa.

A Amurka, ilimin lissafin yara da iya harshe ya ragu sosai, musamman a tsakanin matalauta, yayin da duniya, a kan Yara miliyan 600 ne suka shiga cikin mummunar barna sakamakon rugujewar makarantu. Farashin abinci na duniya ya ƙaru kusan kashi 60 cikin ɗari tsakanin Mayu 2020 da Maris 2022, wanda bai dace ba yana shafar matalauta a Amurka da sauran wurare. Yawan damuwa da damuwa sun karu da aƙalla kashi 25 cikin ɗari a cikin Amurka da ma duniya baki ɗaya.

Bashin gwamnati a Amurka yana da ya karu da akalla 30% na GDP, idan aka kwatanta da karuwa kawai 6% na GDP a Sweden. Haɓakar farashin Amurka ya kusan kusan kashi 10% tun farkon 2022, kuma irin wannan hauhawar hauhawar farashin kayayyaki ya isa wasu ƙasashe da yawa waɗanda ke haɓaka kashe kuɗi, amma ba samarwa ba, a lokacin Covid. A ciki 2020 da kuma 2021, kusan mutane miliyan 7 ne suka mutu a Amurka, tare da 10-15% na waɗannan mutuwar an danganta su da Covid.

Nawa daga cikin barnar lafiya da tattalin arziki da aka gani a cikin shekaru biyu da suka gabata saboda kwayar cutar kanta, kuma nawa ne sakamakon martanin manufofinmu? Maganganun jama'a yanzu haka a kaikaice suna danganta cutar da tattalin arziki da tarwatsewar zamantakewa ga “cutar cutar” (watau kwayar cutar da kanta), yayin da bayanai suka nuna cewa cutarwa da rarrabuwar kawuna sun haifar da rashin mutuntaka ga mutum kamar yadda yake kunshe a cikin martanin manufofinmu. Wannan yana nuna cewa kimanta martanin manufofinmu na iya ba da bayanan da suka dace don jagorantar yadda muke magance barazanar nan gaba kamar Covid.

A cikin wannan maƙala, an rubuta ta ta fuskar tattalin arziki mai faɗi wanda ya ƙunshi fahimtar abubuwan ƙarfafawa, cibiyoyi, bayanai, da kuma iko, mun magance manyan tambayoyi guda uku masu zuwa: (1) Menene ayyuka da alhakin cibiyoyinmu yayin fuskantar barazana kamar haka. Cutar covid? (2) Menene farashi da fa'idodin martanin da ya faru? (3) Menene bukatu da yuwuwar sake fasalin hukumomi da zamantakewa? Babban manufar ita ce ta da tambayoyi da ba da shawarar ra'ayoyin farko waɗanda masu bincike da masu bincike za su iya amfani da su, maimakon ba da amsoshi na ƙarshe.

Matsayi da nauyi a cikin gwamnati

Kamar yadda SARS-CoV-2 ta bulla, mutane da yawa da kungiyoyi sun taka rawa wajen kirkirar martanin gwamnati a matakin tarayya, jihohi da kananan hukumomi. Lokacin da aka gabatar da faffadar mayar da martani, wane mutane ne da kungiyoyi na ciki da wajen gwamnati ke da alhakin wane bangare na shawarar da aka yanke, kuma wani martani ne na gaba daya na siyasa zai yiwu a lokacin?

Ta yaya aka bayyana ra'ayoyin sana'o'i daban-daban (likitoci, lauyoyi, masana ilimin halayyar dan adam, masana tattalin arziki, malaman makaranta) da sassan ofisoshin (ciniki, ilimi, shige da fice, kiwon lafiya) da shigar da su cikin martanin gwamnati gaba daya? Shin martanin ya dace da lokaci don canza bayanai (misali, ɗaukar sabbin zaɓuɓɓukan jiyya na farko, gyare-gyaren ƙirar ƙirar ƙira yayin da sabbin bayanai kan watsawa da mutuwa suka samu, daidaitawa zuwa sabbin bayanai game da ingancin abin rufe fuska, haɗawa da haɓakar ilimin lalacewa na haɗin gwiwa. )?

Mun zayyana salo mai salo na yadda tsarin gaba daya ya kamata ya yi aiki, da takaitaccen bayani kan yadda kungiyoyi da cibiyoyi daban-daban suke aiki a zahiri, da kuma layin bincike don bayyana yadda hakikanin martanin da muka gani ya faru.

Matsayin tattalin arziki

Wani yanki na musamman da aka fi mai da hankali shi ne rawar masana tattalin arziki da hangen nesa na tattalin arziki wajen tafiyar da yanke shawarar manufofin wannan lokacin. Ra'ayin tattalin arziki ya fahimci haɗin kai na sassa, ma'aikata, ƙasashe, da ayyuka, kuma ya yarda cewa ikon al'ummar zamani don samar da sakamakon jin dadin ɗan adam kai tsaye daga ayyukan haɗin gwiwar miliyoyin mutane da ke ɗaukar yanke shawara na yau da kullum da ke tasiri ga bayanan gida da abubuwan ƙarfafawa ga wanda babu wata hukuma ta tsakiya da ke da damar shiga.

Damuwa game da tasirin tattalin arziƙin cutar ta barke, wanda masana tattalin arziki suka bayyana cewa sun fahimci yuwuwar samar da rayuwa ta tattalin arziƙin lafiya, ya zama abin ƙyama musamman a cikin shahararrun manema labarai da tunanin jama'a a lokacin Covid. Wadanda suka tayar da matsalar cewa "rufe tattalin arziki" na iya yin illa ga lafiyar jama'a kuma a kan hanyar rayuwarmu gabaɗaya an raina su a matsayin saka kuɗi a gaban rayuka, ko zabar riba akan mutane. Waɗanda suka ɗaga madaidaicin mahangar tattalin arziƙi na ciniki, inda zaɓin kashewa kan abu ɗaya kuma yana nufin zaɓin kada a kashe kan wasu abubuwa, kuma yanke shawarar dakatar da ayyukan kasuwanci na yau da kullun, al'ummomi, ko asibitoci ke haifar da waɗanda abin ya shafa. nata, an piloried.

Ta yaya aka samu cewa muhimman darussa guda biyu na tattalin arziki - cewa tattalin arziki shine tushen rayuwarmu? da kuma cewa akwai ciniki - an yi watsi da haka? Ta yaya aka ga ra'ayin "dantse dakatarwa" akan tattalin arzikin ya zama mai yiwuwa? An nemi masana tattalin arziki su tuntubi masu yanke shawara? Idan haka ne, shin waɗanda aka tambayi a gaskiya sun ba da gudummawa, kuma sun ba da yanayin tattalin arziki da aka kwatanta a sama? Idan ba haka ba, me ya sa ba a tambaye su ba?

Farashin da fa'idodi

Manyan rikice-rikice sun fito daga martaninmu ga Covid a yawancin fannoni na rayuwar zamantakewa da tattalin arziki. Sakamakon martanin Covid yanzu ana iya gani a cikin ƙarancin kayayyaki na duniya, ɓarna a cikin isar da lafiya, raguwar fahimi da haɓaka tunanin yaranmu, da yunwa. Haɓakar hauhawar farashin kayayyaki na ƙara tashi cikin firgici, sakamakon raguwar samar da kayayyaki kai tsaye da manufofin babban bankin ƙasar. Duk waɗannan tasirin suna da alaƙa da tattalin arziki da kuma zaɓin manufofin tattalin arzikinmu, yana nuna ma'anar cewa hangen nesa na tattalin arziƙin ba wai kawai ya mayar da hankali ga kunkuntar damuwa game da kasuwannin kuɗi ba, amma akan duk ayyukan zamantakewa.

A tsawon lokacin barkewar cutar, bincike a duk duniya ya nuna cewa waɗannan farashin sun fi girma a fagage masu zuwa:

Ragewar lafiyar kwakwalwa (musamman a cikin matasa);
Rashin kula da lafiya ga abubuwan da ba na Covid ba sakamakon sake fasalin sabis na kiwon lafiya don mai da hankali sosai kan Covid (ciki har da dakatar da ayyuka masu mahimmanci ga rayuwa, kamar ayyukan IVF da ake ganin suna da mahimmanci a wannan lokacin);
Babban nauyin bashi a jihar, yana nuna raguwa a ayyukan gwamnati na gaba;
Ƙarfafa rashin zaman lafiya na abubuwan samarwa, gami da rufewar kasuwanci da raguwar sa hannu cikin ƙarfin aiki;
Rushewa ga tarin jari-hujja na ɗan adam da haɓaka fahimta da haɓaka tunanin matasa;
Rushewa zuwa kasuwanni da tsarin farashi (farashi, rushewar sarkar samar da kayayyaki, hanawa ga zaɓin masu amfani ta hanyar ƙuntata motsi, canje-canjen da aka ba da izini ga ayyukan kasuwanci);
Haɓaka samun kuɗin shiga da rashin daidaituwar dukiya, da rage damammaki ga marasa galihu.

Waɗannan farashin ƙila ko a'a sun dace kuma sun zama dole. Don tantance buƙatar biyan waɗannan kuɗaɗen don magance Covid, muna buƙatar ƙididdige ƙimar su kuma kwatanta hakan da fa'idodin da ka iya samu ta manufofin Covid waɗanda suka samar da waɗannan farashin.

Muna bin wata hanya don tantance farashi da fa'idodin martanin manufofin Covid na Amurka wanda ke ɗaukar magana da mahimmanci a cikin Sanarwar 'Yancin kan haƙƙin "rayuwa, yanci, da neman farin ciki." Wannan yana nufin kasa tana da hakki a fakaice na tabbatar da haƙƙin waɗannan abubuwa da sauƙaƙe biyan bukatun 'yan ƙasa. Don auna farashin martanin mu na Covid, muna amfani da ma'aunin mu na farko na adadin shekarun da mutane ke tafiyar da rayuwar farin ciki, muna aro daga tsarin WELLBY na tushen jin daɗi da aka haɓaka kwanan nan a Makarantar Tattalin Arziki ta London, kuma yanzu an karɓi shi a cikin Burtaniya. gwamnati a matsayin hanyar tantance manufofi.

A ƙarshe, akwai hanyoyin da za a gyara barnar da aka yi a lokacin Covid ga iyalai da kasuwanci, da/ko zuwa ƙarin ƙididdiga masu yawa kamar 'yanci na mutum ɗaya, amincewar hukumomi, da halaye na tunani? Shin ya kamata a maido da dukiyoyin da wasu mutane da kungiyoyi suka tara a wannan lokacin? Idan haka ne, ta yaya, kuma mene ne rawar da gwamnati ke takawa wajen tallafa wa irin wannan tsari na maidowa?

Darussa na gaba

Tare da fa'idar hangen nesa, zamu iya yin tambayoyi kamar haka:

Wadanne ra'ayoyin ƙwararru ne ba a inganta su ba, bayyana, ko haɗa su cikin martanin gwamnati?
Wadanne cibiyoyi ne da suka gaza wajen gudanar da ayyukansu, gami da rashin yin aiki ko kuma wuce gona da iri na ikon da aka nada?
Wadanne kungiyoyi da sassa ne suka hana kwararar bayanan da suka fito game da ingantattun martanin lafiyar jama'a, da kuma sakamakon martanin da muka bayar?
Shin masu ba da shawara ga 'yan siyasa da masu tsara manufofi sun ba da shawarwari marasa tsoro don inganta muradun jama'a? Wadanne mutane ko kungiyoyi ne suka hana hada kai a fadin cibiyoyin gwamnati da sassan nazari?
Shin za a iya samun amsa daban-daban ga masu yanke shawara a mahimman wuraren?

A kowane ɗayan waɗannan lokuta, muna tambayar menene madadin matakai ko fasalulluka na hukumomi zasu iya ba da amsa mafi dacewa, ta yadda za a yi nuni ga gyare-gyaren da za a yi la'akari da su a nan gaba. A cikin bincikenmu don neman hanyoyin cibiyoyi, mun juya zuwa misalan da wasu ƙasashe suka bayar tare da tsarin hukumomi daban-daban waɗanda ke da mabambantan martani na farko. Misali, muna amfani da bambance-bambancen martani na manufofin a wasu ƙasashe (kamar Sweden) da kuma a cikin jihohi daban-daban a cikin Amurka, waɗanda ake samu saboda tsarin tarayya, don gano menene madadin martanin Covid da za a iya ɗauka da kuma waɗanne bambance-bambancen hukumomi na iya haifarwa. su.

Wadanne canje-canje ga cibiyoyi ne masu yuwuwa a cikin mahallin Amurka waɗanda zasu iya ba da amsa daban-daban lokacin da aka fuskanci yanayin Fabrairu da Maris 2020? Yawancin cibiyoyin tarayya da na jihohi sun rinjayi martanin farko, gami da a cikin kafofin watsa labarai, ilimi, tsarin aikin likitanci (misali, CDC, FDA, NIH), da kuma tsarin mulkin tattalin arziki na gwamnati. Hakanan ana iya sake fasalin cibiyoyin ilimi da kafofin watsa labarai waɗanda suka taka rawa.

Gyaran cibiyoyi guda ɗaya ya haɗa da ra'ayoyi daban-daban waɗanda ke da alaƙa ga dukkan cibiyoyi, kamar:

Kame cibiyoyi ta hanyar buƙatu na musamman, gami da hukumomin kiwon lafiya da tsarin kotu;
Ƙirƙirar farfaganda da yadawa, gami da rawar da gwamnati ke takawa wajen tabbatar da 'yancin faɗar albarkacin baki a kafofin watsa labarai masu zaman kansu;
Yaɗuwar jama'a na martanin tunani, misalan manufofi marasa kyau, da asarar tattalin arziƙi, gami da asara ga ƙasashe masu tasowa saboda rushewar matsayin Amurka ta yau da kullun a cikin tattalin arzikin ƙasa da ƙasa;
Ƙarfin haɓakawa, bayyanawa, da haɗa ra'ayoyi daban-daban a cikin cibiyoyin gwamnati, ilimi, kafa likitanci, kafofin watsa labaru, da sana'o'i;
Haɗin kai tsakanin mutane da ƙungiyoyi masu ƙarfi a cikin gwamnati da kasuwanci;
Alamar nagarta ta cibiyoyi;
Matsayin ikon maida hankali (misali, a cikin Big Tech da Big Pharma);
Kasancewar ƙwarewar da ta dace a cikin cibiyoyin da ke da alhakin, da ikon yin magana ba tare da jin tsoron ramawa ba.

Muna kuma yin manyan tambayoyi da suka shafi gwamnati da al'umma. Waɗanne sauye-sauyen zamantakewa ya kamata gwamnati ta hana ko tada zaune tsaye a fagage daban-daban kamar yadda ake yin sana'a da isar da uzuri na ƙasa ga waɗanda aka cutar da su a wannan lokacin (misali, matasa), yadda ya fi dacewa don kallon wannan lokacin, halayen aminci da mafi kyawun iyakoki na ƙa'idodi, da kuma yadda muke kallon ƙwayoyin cuta, mutuwa, da sauran mutane?

Bayan iyakokin Amurka, ta yaya canje-canje ga hanyoyin haɗin gwiwar kasa da kasa za su iya ba da kyakkyawan sakamako ga Amurka da duniya a cikin rikicin nan gaba?

Tambayoyinmu suna haifar da nau'ikan nau'ikan nau'ikan halayen uku daban-daban ga shawarar manufofin da aka yanke a lokacin Covid: (1) Adalci: yin la'akari da masu yanke shawara da tsarin da suka wuce ikonsu ko kuma waɗanda suka cutar da jama'a da gangan; (2) Gyaran ofis: neman sabbin dokoki da cibiyoyi don magance gazawar da aka samu; da (3) Dimokaradiyya: shigar da jama'a kai tsaye cikin nadin manyan masu yanke shawara da kuma samar da muhimman kayayyakin jama'a, kamar amintattun bayanai.

A cikin wa] annan kasidun na Tambayoyi, babban burinmu shi ne tsara tambayoyin da ya kamata a yi don gano layukan alhakin tsara manufofi; auna ko martanin Amurka sun dace; kimanta lalacewar martaninmu; da kuma keɓanta buƙatu da yuwuwar sake fasalin hukumomi da zamantakewa.

PART 1 Amsar Covid-XNUMX ta Amurka: Layin bincike

Me yakamata ya faru lokacin da Covid ya fito? Me ya faru a zahiri? Menene matsayi da alhakin ƙungiyoyi da daidaikun mutane wajen ƙirƙira martanin Amurka?

1 (a) Menene ya kamata ya faru?

Amurka a farkon 2020 tana da tsarin cibiyoyi da goyan bayan hukuma wanda ke bayyana yadda za a magance barazanar kamar Covid. Menene yakamata ya faru, bisa ga fayyace ayyukan waɗannan cibiyoyi da tsarin tallafi, lokacin da Covid ya fito?

1 (a) i Tsare-tsaren ci gaba: Ayyukan gwamnati

Waɗanne ƙungiyoyi ne aka ba wa aiki a cikin tsarin mulkin Amurka tare da ƙirƙira manufofin kimantawa/kare? Wadanne ka'idoji, gami da kusa da "bayani na gaggawa" ko "yanayin gaggawa," sun wanzu kuma za a iya amfani da su idan wata babbar barazana ga lafiyar jama'a ta fito?

Dangane da ayyuka na yau da kullun, cibiyoyin Amurka da yawa na iya ɗaukar rigar jagoranci yayin bala'i, kuma abin da ke faruwa a zahiri ya dogara da abin da shugaban ya yanke shawara da kuma cibiyoyin da suka zaɓi ɗaukar nauyin jagoranci. Kamar yadda Berman (2020) yayi bayani, Jiha da na tarayya nauyi sun zo biyu:

A matsayin abin da ya shafi lafiyar jama'a, babban alhakin mayar da martani na annoba ya ta'allaka ne ga jihohi. A lokaci guda, dokoki da yawa, manufofi, da tsare-tsare masu yawa na martanin cutar da gwamnatin tarayya ta ɓullo da su sun bayyana cewa nasarar yaƙi da barkewar cutar ta COVID-19 yana buƙatar mayar da martani na ƙasa, tare da manyan ayyuka dole ne. fada kan gwamnatin tarayya.

Hukumomin gwamnatin tarayya daban-daban… sun samar da tsare-tsare na gaggawa da aka tsara don jagorantar martanin cutar idan bukatar hakan ta taso. Wasu, kamar Sashen Lafiya da Sabis na Jama'a' (HHS) Tsarin Cutar Cutar Cutar Kwalara,… sabunta kwanan nan a cikin 2017; Dabarun Majalisar Tsaron Cikin Gida ta Kasa game da Cutar Murar Cutar Kwalara da Shirin Aiwatar da ita; Shirin Yakin Duniya na Ma'aikatar Tsaro don Cutar Murar Cutar; da Littafin Playbook na Hukumar Tsaro ta Ƙasa (NSC) masu kamuwa da cuta, sun keɓanta da cutar. Sauran, kamar National Blueprint for Biodefense, wanda ya samo asali ne daga wani kwamiti mai ban sha'awa wanda ya kunshi tsofaffin 'yan majalisa, jami'an zartarwa, da masana; Tsarin Martani na Ƙasa na Ma'aikatar Tsaron Gida (DHS); da Tsarin Tsaron Kiwon Lafiya na Ƙasa da Tsarin Aiwatarwa na HHS, sun haɗa da kewayon yuwuwar yanayin yanayin gaggawa waɗanda zasu haɗa da annoba. A ƙarshe, akwai Shirin Ayyukan Rikicin Cutar Kwayar cuta na Gwamnatin Amurka (PanCAP) wanda aka daidaita shi musamman don mayar da martani ga COVID-19.

Ba tare da togiya ba, kowane ɗayan waɗannan tsare-tsare na yin hasashen rawar da gwamnatin tarayya za ta taka wajen fuskantar ƙalubale irin wanda muke fuskanta a halin yanzu. Don cimma wannan aikin, gwamnati za ta iya amfani da kayan aiki daban-daban guda biyu. Na farko dai tilastawa ne — hukumomin da ke ba gwamnatin tarayya damar buƙata ko hana wasu ayyuka, kamar hana mutanen da ake zargi da ɗauke da cututtuka shiga ƙasar. Kamar dai yadda yake da mahimmanci, duk da haka, yawancin kayan aikin da ba tilastawa hukumomin tarayya suke ba—ikon da ke ba da damar ayyukan tarayya don tallafawa shirye-shirye da ƙoƙarin mayar da martani, kamar daidaitawa tsakanin ƙungiyoyin gwamnati, binciken rigakafin rigakafi da magani, ƙoƙarin ilimin jama'a, da sarrafa albarkatun.

Wani muhimmin alhaki da manufofin annobar cutar suka sanya wa gwamnatin tarayya shine daidaitawa… HHS shine shugaban da aka zaba don martanin tarayya - kodayake a cikin yanayin Covid-19 an mayar da matsayin jagoranci ga Mataimakin Shugaban kasa a ranar 28 ga Fabrairu - wanda Mataimakin Shugaban kasa ya nada. Sakataren Shirye-shirye da Amsa (ASPR).

Baya ga ayyukanta na daidaitawa, aikin gwamnatin tarayya a lokacin barkewar ya haɗa da ayyuka masu mahimmanci, kamar shiga cikin nazarin cututtukan cututtuka don sanar da ƙoƙarin magance cutar; haɓaka kayan aikin likita masu mahimmanci, kamar alluran rigakafi, hanyoyin warkewa, da bincike; ƙayyadaddun buƙatun haɓakawa ko siyan hanyoyin magance magunguna; kula da sarƙoƙin samar da kayayyaki da kayan ajiya; da kuma lura da buƙatu da rarraba waɗancan kayayyaki ta hanyar yin hulɗa da abokan hulɗa masu zaman kansu da ƙananan hukumomi. Sarrafa sarkar samar da kayayyaki ya haɗa da ba wai kawai jagorantar mahimman albarkatu zuwa inda aka fi buƙata ba, har ma da yin amfani da kayan aikin da ke samuwa na musamman ga gwamnatin tarayya kamar Dabarun Hannun Jari na Ƙasa.

Don haka jihohi suna da alhakin farko, gami da ikon 'yan sanda na gabaɗaya akan lafiyar jama'a, tare da hukumomin tarayya da ke da alhakin sanarwa da daidaitawa. Ma'aikatar Kiwon Lafiya ta Tarayya da Sabis na Jama'a tana da hurumin aiwatar da keɓewar tsakanin jihohi, amma ba a taɓa yin amfani da wannan ikon dangane da mutane ba. Hukumomi daban-daban na iya ƙoƙarin ɗaukar nauyi, kuma ana iya kiran ikon gaggawa. Duk da haka, girman waɗannan iko yana yin hamayya bisa doka, kamar yadda aka nuna ta hanyar Asusun Kare 'Yancin Lafiya kungiyar ta kalubale na nasara na wajibcin abin rufe fuska wanda Cibiyar Kula da Cututtuka ta bayar wanda an same shi cewa CDC ta zarce ikonta na ba da umarni.

1 (a) ii Manufofin hukumomi don kula da cututtuka

Wadanne manufofi ya kamata a yi tsammani, bisa yarjejeniya a cibiyoyin Amurka kafin 2020 game da abin da ya kamata a yi?

Cututtuka na daga cikin batutuwan da aka fi yin nazari a kan lafiyar jama'a. An yi bincike sosai kan ka'idojin sarrafa cututtukan numfashi kuma an fahimce su kuma an amince da su a cikin da'irar gwamnatin Amurka kafin 2020.

Shirin gwamnatin Amurka na annoba

Shirin 2017 na Ma'aikatar Heath ta Amurka (Shirye-shiryen Cutar Cutar Mura na 2017 KYAUTA) ya ƙunshi babu maganar kulle-kulle. Yana cewa:

NPIs [matsalolin da ba na magunguna ba] waɗanda duk mutane yakamata suyi aiki a kowane lokaci suna da mahimmanci musamman yayin bala'i. Waɗannan ayyukan rigakafin na yau da kullun sun haɗa da zama a gida lokacin rashin lafiya, rufe tari da atishawa, yawan wanke hannu da dacewa, da tsaftace wuraren da ake taɓawa akai-akai. Za a iya ƙara matakan matakin al'umma yayin bala'o'i kuma a aiwatar da su cikin tsari mai daraja dangane da tsananin cutar; waɗannan sun haɗa da matakan da ke nufin rage hulɗar zamantakewa tsakanin mutane a makarantu, wuraren aiki, da sauran wuraren zamantakewa.

Wannan tsantsa ba game da kulle-kulle ba ne, amma game da matakan son rai.

Jagororin cutar sankara na CDCHoto mai zuwa daga CDC's Sharuɗɗan Rarrabuwar Al'umma don Hana Murar Cutar Kwalara - Amurka, 2017 ya nuna cewa kamar Ma'aikatar Kiwon Lafiya ta Amurka, CDC ba ta ba da shawarar kulle-kullen jama'a ko kuma dokar hana fita ba, har ma da cutar sankarau.

Wadannan jagororin CDC na 2017 sun ambaci (a shafi na 27) buƙatar guje wa ƙirƙirar "gajiya tsoma baki" da kuma tabbatar da cewa an fahimci farashin da ba a yi niyya ba ("ƙididdigar") da kuma rage ("ƙaddamar da farashin zamantakewa da tattalin arziki yayin bala'i" ). An ba da sashin da ya dace daga tebur mai mahimmanci a cikin rahoton a ƙasa. Wannan yana kwatanta cewa a cikin 2017, CDC da kanta ta ba da shawarar daidaita farashi da fa'idodin kowane saƙon lafiyar jama'a.

Abin da ke biyo baya daga tebur a shafi na 32 na jagororin CDC na 2017 ya fi fitowa fili: har ma ga kwayar cutar da ta yi daidai da mura ta Mutanen Espanya na karnin da suka gabata, ba za a amince da warewa na tilas ba. Don kamuwa da cuta mai sauƙi zuwa matsakaici, CDC "ba ta ba da shawarar keɓe gida na son rai na dangin da aka fallasa ba," kamar yadda aka fada a cikin Jagororin WHO na 2019. Za a rarraba Covid a matsayin annoba ta "matsakaici" tare da ƙaramin tasiri ga yara, don haka wanda kawai NPIs da CDC ta ba da shawarar a cikin 2017 sun kasance dangane da daidaitaccen tsaftar mutum, gami da zama a gida idan ba ku da lafiya.

Haka kuma, jagorar CDC ta keɓe kanta ga shawarwari. Ba a yi la'akari da umarni ba, har ma da matsanancin annoba.

1 (a) iii Takaitaccen abin da yakamata ya faru bisa ga tsari da tsare-tsare kafin 2020

Dangane da abin da ya kamata ya faru lokacin da Covid ya fito, CDC yakamata kawai ta aiwatar da kulle-kulle da sauran matakan tilastawa bayan nazarin fa'ida na waɗannan matakan, yayin da yawancin manufofin yakamata a tsara su a matakin jiha maimakon matakin tarayya. Matsayin CDC da sauran hukumomin tarayya yakamata su kasance sanarwa, ba da shawara, da daidaitawa, maimakon tilastawa ko umarni.

Takardar Berman ta 2020 ya bayyana cewa "a tsarin tsarin mulkin mu na tarayya, jihohi suna da ikon 'yan sanda don daidaitawa a cikin aikin kiwon lafiyar jama'a, aminci, da jin dadin jama'arsu… magance matsalolin gaggawa na lafiyar cikin gida ya ta'allaka ne da jihohi da yankuna… Ko da a waje da yanayin gaggawa, jihohi a kai a kai suna aiwatar da aikin tantancewa da ka'idojin rigakafin; gudanar da duba lafiya a wuraren kasuwanci kamar gidajen abinci da wuraren sayar da farce; da kuma shiga cikin sa ido, ganowa, jiyya, da sanarwar mutanen da suka kamu da cututtuka kamar tarin fuka ko HIV. Ayyukan waɗannan hukumomin na yau da kullun sun kasa jawo hankalin da aka keɓe ga annoba kamar COVID-19, amma suna kwatanta irin nauyin da ayyukan kiwon lafiyar jama'a ke ɗauka a duk faɗin ƙasar. "

Hukumomin tarayya ba su bi ko dai nasu tsare-tsare ko kuma yarjejeniya ta kimiyya kafin 2020 ba, kuma ba a raba mukamai tsakanin hukumomin tarayya da jihohi kamar yadda aka yi tsammani kafin 2020. Tambayoyi masu mahimmanci sun shafi wanene ya karbi mulki fiye da yadda ya kamata, wanda ya ba su damar yin haka, abin da kotuna ta yi, da kuma ko idan aka yi la'akari da hukuncin da aka yanke ya sabawa doka ko ma laifi. Kalubale ga faffadan amfani da ikon tarayya a lokacin covid sun yi nasara yayin da ake kira ga dokar da ke bayyana iyakokin ikon gudanarwa na tarayya, kamar Dokar Gudanarwa (misali, Hukuncin Kotun Koli a kan dakatarwar korar da CDC ta biyu, da Kotun gunduma ta yanke hukunci wanda aka ambata a sama wajibcin abin rufe fuska, Da gano ta kotun da'ira a kan dokar rigakafin cutar covid ga ƴan kwangilar tarayya). Kokarin daukaka kara kan cin zarafin ‘yan sandan da ke zaune a jihohi bai yi nasara ba wajen soke dokar yaki da cutar a matakin jihohi, inda sau da yawa kotuna ke yin misali da shari’ar rigakafin cutar sankara ta 1905, Jacobson vs Massachusetts, wanda hukumar jihar ta tilasta yin allurar. an yarda da shi bisa ka'idar cin gashin kansa na jiki. Yana ɗaukar ambaton cewa tun 1905, Kotun Koli ta gano a wasu lokuta cewa mutane suna da haƙƙin kansu na ƙin magani, binciken da har yanzu ba a daidaita shi da shawarar Jacobson ba.

1 (a) iv Gudanar da cututtukan da suka gabata

Misalai na tarihi suna ba da madadin hangen nesa kan martanin gwamnatin Amurka na Covid. Shin abin da ya faru a lokacin Covid ya yi daidai da abin da ya faru yayin annoba ta baya?

A Littafin 2015 Daga Rachel Kaplan Hoffmann da Keith Hoffmann sun zayyana kamar haka tarihin "cordons sanitaires" - ƙoƙarin ware mutane daga juna - a matsayin ma'aunin rage cututtuka:

Da farko an ci gaba yayin mutuwar baƙar fata na tsakiyar zamanai, tun lokacin da aka yi amfani da su ga mazaunan Georgia, Texas, da Florida a lokacin 1880s don magance yaduwar zazzabi; Chinatown na Honolulu a lokacin barkewar cutar bubonic a 1900; da Poland a lokacin da aka yi fama da cutar typhus bayan yakin duniya na daya; tare da misalan tarihi da suka hada da al'ummomin da suka kamu da son rai sun killace kansu. Waɗannan igiyoyin sun sami matakan nasara daban-daban na likita; a mafi munin su, cordons sanitaires, ciki har da yawancin misalan Amurkawa na wannan al'ada, sun kasance misalan rashin tausayi da wariyar launin fata waɗanda ba dole ba ne su cutar da al'ummomin tsiraru. Koyaya, barkewar cutar EVD [Ebola] a cikin 1995 a Kikwit, Zaire yana ɗauke da “marasa zuciya amma tasiri” igiyoyin sanitaires.

Waɗannan matakan sun kasance gajeriyar “kulle” da ke aiki ga birane ko ƙananan yankuna, amma ba ga ƙasashen gaba ɗaya na dogon lokaci ba.

Yayin da babu makawa tsoro yana tare da cututtuka kafin a gano ƙwayoyin cuta na ƙwayoyin cuta, tsoro ya zama ƙasa da gama gari yayin da kimiyyar lafiyar jama'a ta girma a tsakiyar ƙarni na 20. Misali, a lokacin mura na Asiya a shekarar 1957, “ Kwararru a fannin kiwon lafiyar jama’a sun yi la’akari da rufe makarantu, rufe harkokin kasuwanci, da kuma hana al’amuran jama’a amma duk tsarin sana’ar sun yi watsi da su. Akwai dalilai guda biyu na wannan ƙin yarda: kulle-kulle zai zama mai kawo cikas sosai, yana lalata ƙarfin ƙwararrun likitocin don magance rikicin yadda ya kamata, kuma saboda irin waɗannan manufofin ba za su yi amfani ba saboda kwayar cutar ta riga ta kasance a nan kuma tana yaduwa. ”

Zamanin zinari na lafiyar jama'a da cututtukan cututtukan ya zo a cikin shekarun 1950 zuwa 1960, lokacin da masana kamar Donald Henderson a ƙarshe suka mallaki yanayin cututtukan. Ana bikin Donald Henderson a matsayin mutumin da ya sa ido kan kawar da kananan yara daga doron kasa.

Ra'ayin Henderson shine cewa ba shi yiwuwa a dakatar da yawancin ƙwayoyin cuta ta hanyar sarrafa kan iyaka.¹ Henderson ya amsa cewa ba za a iya dakatar da yaduwar yawancin ƙwayoyin cuta ba sai dai idan an dakatar da shari'ar farko ("index case") a cikin ƙasa, kuma an dakatar da shari'ar na gaba, kuma an dakatar da duk wani karin bayani yayin da yake fashewa. Ya yi nuni da cewa, hakika ana iya shawo kan wasu kwayoyin cuta ta hanyar keɓe marasa lafiya, kuma an yi ƙoƙarin yin hakan cikin nasara, kamar cutar Ebola. Amma duk da haka ga mafi yawan ƙwayoyin cuta, ciki har da mura, ya bayar da hujjar cewa idan ko da mutum guda ya zame ta hanyar hanyar sarrafawa, to yaƙin ya ɓace. Ya fi dacewa a irin waɗannan lokuta, in ji Henderson, ba aiwatar da tsauraran matakan sarrafa kan iyakoki ba amma a kula da cutar don rage cutarwa. A cikin kalmominsa: "Wannan ra'ayin cewa a wannan zamani da zamani mutum zai shiga cikin mutanen da ke ƙetare kan iyaka kuma za ku dakatar da yaduwar cutar wani ra'ayi ne da ya daɗe da daɗewa."

¹ Dubi sharhin Donald Henderson akan wannan batu a hanyar haɗin gwiwa daga timestamp 32:35, yana magana akan wani kwamiti a taron 5 Maris 2010 akan "Kwarewar 2009 H1N1: abubuwan da suka shafi manufofin gaggawa na gaggawa na cutar nan gaba" a Annoba (Panel)).

Dangane da ayyukan nisantar da jama'a gabaɗaya, a 2007 An ba da rahoto a cikin Laburaren Magunguna na Ƙasa cewa "Donald Henderson na Cibiyar Kiwon Lafiya ta Jami'ar Pittsburgh ya yi gargaɗi game da dogaro da samfuran da ba sa la'akari da illa ko ƙayyadaddun ƙayyadaddun ayyukan da irin waɗannan ayyukan kiwon lafiyar jama'a za su haifar. Yarda da irin waɗannan samfuran ba tare da tsangwama ba, in ji shi, na iya haifar da manufofin da ‘daukar annobar da za a iya magance ta da kuma mai da ita bala’i na ƙasa.’ ”

A bayyane yake, ba a yi amfani da tsawaita kulle-kulle na jama'a ba a wannan zamani kuma manyan ƙwararrun ƙwararrun cututtukan cuta sun ɗauke su a matsayin rashin hikima. An san su da haifar da mummunar tasiri a kan sauran bangarori na al'umma, ciki har da ikonmu na ci gaba da sarrafa cutar da aka yi niyya.²

²Dubi wannan tattaunawa na matsayin Donald Henderson da tarihin amfani da kulle-kulle da Jay Bhattacharya ya bayar, kuma wannan sake bugawa na takarda daga Henderson.

Ra'ayin Henderson ya zama ijma'in kimiyya. Manyan 'yan wasa a cikin martanin Covid-2014 na Amurka, kamar Anthony Fauci, da farko sun bi ra'ayin Henderson game da rashin ma'ana na kulle-kulle kafin barkewar cutar ta Covid. A cikin XNUMX, Fauci bai ba da shawarar keɓewa ba har ma da ma’aikatan lafiya na Ebola. Har zuwa 24 ga Janairu 2020, Fauci ya nuna adawa da kulle-kulle, cewa "A tarihi idan kun rufe abubuwa ba shi da wani babban tasiri."

Bugu da ari, rashin fahimta ko da yake yana iya zama alama, akwai yuwuwar samun fa'idodin kiwon lafiyar jama'a daga cuɗanya da ɗan adam. Wasu daga cikin waɗannan na iya samun kai tsaye daga hulɗar mu da ƙwayoyin cuta, gami da lokacin da muke balaguro zuwa ƙasashen duniya. Tun da aƙalla ta "Princeton a Turai" lacca na 2013, Dokta Sunetra Gupta na Jami'ar Oxford ya yi jayayya An ƙarfafa rigakafi na duniya ga ƙwayoyin cuta daga balaguron ƙasa:

Kwayoyin cuta masu haɗari ba za su iya zama kawai abubuwan da muke dawo da su daga ƙasashen da suka samo asali ba. Yana yiwuwa koyaushe muna shigo da ƙananan ƙwayoyin cuta waɗanda ba a gano su ba saboda suna da asymptomatic kuma waɗannan na iya yin tasirin rage girman kamuwa da cuta tare da ƴan uwansu masu cutarwa.

Bayan haka, babbar dabarar da ke kan hannun rigar mu ita ce, kamar yadda ake yin allurar rigakafi, ita ce yin amfani da nau'in nau'i mai laushi don karewa daga nau'in nau'in cutarwa. Wataƙila wannan wani abu ne da muke cim ma ba da gangan ba ta hanyar haɗuwa da yawa tare da nau'ikan cututtuka na duniya.

A cewar Dr Gupta, ƙa'ida ɗaya ta shafi yara, waɗanda "suna amfana daga fallasa su ga wannan [Covid] da sauran cututtukan coronavirus na yanayi." Ma'anar ita ce samun kamuwa da cuta maras lahani yana kare yara daga cututtuka masu tsanani a nan gaba. Don haka, Dr Gupta ya yi ikirari, “Hanya mafi kyau don [kare annoba] ita ce gina katangar rigakafi ta duniya. Kuma yana iya yiwuwa ba da gangan muke cimma hakan ta hanyar tafiye-tafiyenmu na yau da kullun ba. " A matsayin wani ɓangare na martaninmu ga Covid, mun dakatar da wannan yuwuwar hanyar gina rigakafi matakin rukuni ga ƙwayoyin cuta.

Yayin da aka keɓe al'ummomi na ɗan lokaci a lokacin munanan cututtukan da suka gabata, manyan masana kimiyya sun zo ƙarshen tsakiyar karni na 20 cewa tsawaita kulle-kulle ba zai yi aiki ba da zarar kwayar cutar ta zama annoba, kuma a zahiri yana da illa ga lafiyar gaba ɗaya. na al'ummomin ɗan adam don ƙoƙarin guje wa yaduwar kwayar cuta.

Amma duk da haka, tsoro da damar kasuwanci sun haɗu don samar da martani maras kyau daga gwamnatoci game da annoba na shekaru 50 da suka gabata.

Wata takarda da aka buga a cikin Bulletin na WHO a cikin 2011 ya bayyana kamar haka yadda tsoro ya rinjayi kwantar da hankulan jama'a a Turai game da murar tsuntsaye da murar aladu:

Cutar da cutar ta sake haifar da cutar ta cutar H5N1 [2006] da sabuwar kwayar cutar murar mutum ta A(H1N1) [2009] suna daga cikin al'adar tsoro. Tunani mafi muni ya maye gurbin madaidaicin ƙimar haɗari. Tunani mafi muni yana motsa shi ta bangaskiyar cewa haɗarin da muke fuskanta yana da matuƙar bala'i wanda dole ne mu ɗauki mataki nan da nan. Maimakon jira bayani, muna buƙatar yajin aikin riga-kafi. Amma idan albarkatu ta sayi rayuka, tozarta albarkatu tana lalata rayuka. Sana'o'in rigakafin da ba su da amfani sosai da kuma manufofin rigakafin da ba su dace ba game da kwayar cutar ta H1N1 da ba a saba gani ba ta barnata biliyoyin Yuro da yawa tare da zubar da amanar jama'a ga jami'an kiwon lafiya. Ba a taɓa sanar da manufofin cutar ta hanyar shaida ba, amma saboda tsoron mummunan yanayin yanayi.

Halin ma'aikatan kiwon lafiyar jama'a na wuce gona da iri game da haɗari da kuma haifar da fargabar hangen nesa da ke yin watsi da sauran al'amuran kiwon lafiya sananne ne. Halin ma'aikatan kiwon lafiyar jama'a dangane da cutar murar alade ya kasance abin tambaya, kamar yadda aka ruwaito a cikin takardu da yawa da ta Majalisar Turai, babbar kungiyar kare hakkin dan Adam ta nahiyar.

An sake amfani da kulle-kulle a 2014 don kokarin shawo kan cutar Ebola a Afirka. An lura a cikin New York Times labarin da ya ba da rahoton wannan cewa kulle-kulle ya haifar da manyan ƙalubalen dabaru da sauran ƙalubalen da kuma tasiri ga haƙƙin ɗan adam. Takardar Hoffman da Hoffman da ke sama sun kimanta waɗannan kulle-kulle na Ebola na 2014 ("cordons sanitaires") bisa ga mahimman ka'idoji guda huɗu: cin gashin kai, fa'ida, rashin cin zarafi, da adalci. Baya ga abubuwan da suka shafi kayan aiki da rashin gudanar da aikin da suke lura da su, babban abin lura da su yana da kyau:

[T] waɗannan igiyoyin sun sami tasiri mai canzawa. A asibiti, ƙananan igiyoyi - keɓance marasa lafiya da waɗanda masu cutar EVD suka yi hulɗa kai tsaye - sun nuna tasiri, yayin da matsakaici da manyan igiyoyi a kusa da unguwanni, yankuna, da ƙasashe sun tabbatar da damuwa ta ɗabi'a, ba su da tasiri sosai, da wahalar aiwatarwa.

Ya kamata jami'an kiwon lafiya na jama'a su mayar da hankali kan tsare EVD ta hanyar yin watsi da wadanda suka riga sun kamu da cutar da kuma dakile yaduwar ta ta hanyar ƙananan ƙananan igiyoyi - kamar waɗanda aka yi nasara a Najeriya da Senegal - an gudanar da su a cikin mafi kyawun ɗabi'a. Abin farin ciki, irin wannan ƙoƙarin ya nuna tasiri; A cikin rahotonta na baya-bayan nan, WHO ta bayyana cewa, a matakin kasa, Guinea, Laberiya, da Saliyo sun sami damar ware da kuma kula da duk wadanda suka kamu da cutar ta EVD da kuma binne duk wadanda suka mutu sakamakon kamuwa da cutar ta EVD lafiya da mutunci.

Ko da yayin da ake aiwatar da ƙananan igiyoyi, ya kamata jami'an kiwon lafiyar jama'a su yi taka tsantsan don hana tsangwama ko tsaurin ra'ayi kamar yadda keɓancewar da ba ta dace ba yana haifar da lamuran ɗa'a, na iya haifar da firgita ga lafiyar jama'a, da almubazzaranci.

Lokacin da suka yi tunani game da annoba da yawa tsakanin 1940 zuwa 2006, Torsten Engelbrecht da Claus Kohnlein a cikin littafinsu na 2007 bayyana kasada ga bil'adama lokacin da aka yi amfani da ikon lafiyar jama'a ba daidai ba.

Ba mu shaida annoba ta hoto ko bidiyo mai zagaya yanar gizo da sauri; muna shaida annoba ta tsoro. Kuma duka kafofin watsa labarai da masana'antar harhada magunguna suna ɗaukar mafi yawan alhakin haɓaka tsoro, fargabar da ke faruwa, ba zato ba tsammani, koyaushe kunna kasuwanci mai fa'ida. Hasashen bincike da ke rufe waɗannan wuraren binciken ƙwayoyin cuta a zahiri ba a taɓa tabbatar da su ta hanyar kimiyya tare da kulawar da suka dace ba. Maimakon haka, an kafa su ta “ijma’i.” Daga nan sai a yi saurin rikidewa zuwa tsarin akida, yadda kafafen yada labarai ke ci gaba da aiwatar da su ta hanyar ka'ida-addini, gami da tabbatar da cewa an takaita kudaden bincike ga ayyukan da ke tallafawa akidar, ban da bincike cikin wasu zato. Wani muhimmin kayan aiki don kiyaye muryoyin da ba su yarda da su ba a cikin mahawara shine tantacewa a matakai daban-daban tun daga shahararrun kafofin watsa labaru zuwa wallafe-wallafen kimiyya.

A taƙaice, an fahimci cewa yin amfani da kulle-kulle a cikin al'umma ko da na kwayar cuta kamar Ebola yana da yawa. Hatta ga cutar Ebola, “kananan igiyoyi” ne kawai aka kimanta a matsayin masu tasiri. Lokacin da aka ga manyan kulle-kulle har da kwayar cuta mai kisa kamar Ebola a matsayin rashin kimiyya da rashin da'a, ba a yi la'akari da yin amfani da waɗannan matakan don ƙoƙarin dakatar da ƙwayar cuta mai kama da mura ba.

Duk da haka yayin da yarjejeniyar kimiyya da shawarwarin WHO a farkon 2020 suka bayyana wauta na kulle-kulle da sauran matakan tilastawa, akwai kuma sanannen haɗarin cewa tsoro da damar kasuwanci za su haɗu don turawa mai tsadar gaske.

1 (b) Menene ainihin ya faru?

Wane jerin shawarwari ne suka zama saitin martanin manufofin Covid na Amurka? Dubban yanke shawara da aka yanke a matakin jiha da tarayya sun shiga cikin martani. Mun jera a taƙaice a ƙasa yanke shawarar tarayya waɗanda ke ɗaukar mafi girman farashin tattalin arziki.

1 (b) i Takaitaccen lokacin abubuwan da suka faru da manyan yanke shawara da aka yanke yayin zamanin Covid

A ƙarshen Nuwamba 2019, an gano wata cuta da ba a sani ba a Wuhan, China wacce a yanzu ake kira SARS-CoV-2. A ranar 20 ga Janairu, 2020, Dr. Anthony Fauci, Daraktan Cibiyar Kula da Allergy da Cututtuka na Kasa, ya ba da sanarwar cewa "NIH na kan aiwatar da daukar matakan farko na samar da rigakafin." Washegari, a ranar 21 ga Janairu, 2020, an tabbatar da shari'ar Covid ta farko a Amurka.

A ranar 23 ga Janairu, 2020, WHO ta ce har yanzu Covid bai zama gaggawar lafiyar jama'a ba na damuwa na duniya. Duk da wannan, Fadar White House ta kafa wata runduna don samar da ingantacciyar lafiya da bayanan balaguro a ranar 29 ga Janairu, 2020.

A ranar 30 ga Janairu, 2020, WHO ta ayyana dokar ta-baci ta Lafiyar Jama'a ta Duniya (PHEIC) kuma washegari, a ranar 31 ga Janairu, 2020, gwamnatin Trump ta ba da sanarwar cewa za a hana 'yan kasashen waje da suka yi balaguro zuwa China a cikin kwanaki 14 da suka gabata. zuwa Amurka.

A ranar 10 ga Fabrairu, 2020, kwararrun WHO sun isa kasar Sin don taimakawa wajen dakile barkewar cutar Coronavirus. A ranar 11 ga Fabrairu, 2020, an sanya sunan Coronavirus Covid-19.

Babban bankin tarayya ya rage yawan kudin ruwa da rabin kaso a ranar 3 ga Maris, 2020. Wannan shi ne karon farko da ba a yi niyya ba tun daga shekarar 2008.

A ranar 10 ga Maris, 2020, Shugaban Jami'ar Harvard Lawrence Bacow ya ba da sanarwar sauya sheka zuwa cikakken azuzuwan kan layi zuwa Litinin, Maris 23 bayan dawowar dalibai daga hutun bazara. Dalibai za su ci gaba da karatu daga nesa "har sai an samu sanarwa." Sanarwar Harvard ta biyo bayan rufe ranar 7 ga Maris, 2020 na Jami'ar Washington, babbar jami'a ta farko a Amurka da ta rufe saboda Covid.

A ranar 11 ga Maris, 2020, WHO ta ayyana barkewar cutar Coronavirus a matsayin annoba kuma Shugaba Trump ya ba da sanarwar cewa ya hana tafiye-tafiye daga Turai zuwa Amurka na tsawon kwanaki 30 don rage yaduwar Covid. An kebe 'yan Amurka da mazaunan dindindin daga haramcin kuma za a tantance su kafin su shiga Amurka.

A ranar 13 ga Maris, 2020, Shugaba Trump ya ayyana dokar ta-baci ta kasa kuma a ranar 18 ga Maris, 2020, an sanya hannu kan kunshin tallafin Coronavirus ya zama doka. A ranar 27 ga Maris, 2020, wani kunshin tallafin dala tiriliyan 2 ya sanya hannu kan doka ta Shugaba Trump.

Tsakanin ƙarshen Maris 2020 zuwa Mayu 2020, hukumomi a cikin jihohi ɗaya sun yanke shawara kan rufe kasuwancin tilas, banbance tsakanin ayyuka masu mahimmanci da marasa mahimmanci, da ƙa'idodi kan tallafi ga waɗanda aka tilastawa rufewa.

A ranar 2 ga Afrilu, 2020, Ma'aikatar Kwadago ta ba da sanarwar cewa ma'aikatan Amurka miliyan 6.6 ne suka shigar da kara na makon farko na fa'idodin rashin aikin yi a cikin makon da ke kawo karshen 28 ga Maris. Wannan shi ne mafi girman adadin da'awar rashin aikin yi na farko a tarihi. A martanin da ya mayar, Shugaba Trump ya rattaba hannu kan wata doka ta dala biliyan 484 na karamar kasuwanci, wanda akasarin wadanda suka ba da tallafin Shirin Kariyar Biyan Kuɗi a ranar 23 ga Afrilu, 2020.

A ranar 3 ga Afrilu, 2020, gwamnatin Trump ta ba da shawarar Amurkawa su fara sanya suturar fuska "marasa magani".

Littafin Scott Atlas' 2021, Annoba A Gidanmu, yana ba da taƙaitaccen abin da ya faru a matakin tarayya tun daga ƙarshen 2020 lokacin da ya shiga cikin Task Force na Coronavirus Task Force na Trump White House kuma ya gano cewa Anthony Fauci (Daraktan NIAID kuma Babban Mashawarcin Likitan Lafiya) ne ke jagorantar martanin Covid-2021. Shugaban kasa tun 2020) da Deborah Birx (Mai Gudanar da Ba da Amsa na Fadar White House tun Fabrairu 2020). Dukansu Fauci da Birx sun goyi bayan matsananciyar martani ga Covid waɗanda suka saba da tsare-tsaren sarrafa cutar ta Amurka kafin XNUMX. An ƙara samun ikon tilastawa ga CDC, wani abu Ana ƙara ganinsa a matsayin rigima a cikin da'irar doka da aikin jarida a 2022. Duk da haka, Shugaba Trump ne ya ayyana dokar ta-baci ta kasa a ranar 13 ga Maris, 2020, da kuma wanda ya fara ba da umarnin zama a gida daga ranar 17 ga Maris, 2020. Trump ya kuma amince da aikace-aikacen ikon Birx, da gaske barin CDC da wasu suna tafiyar da manufofi yayin da suke da alhakin kai tsaye, a matsayin shugaban kasa.

An raba shawarar kullewa da kula da kwayar cutar a matsayin gaggawa a cikin 2020. Kamar yadda Berman (2020) Ya kara da cewa, "Dukkan jihohi 19 sun ayyana COVID-XNUMX a matsayin gaggawar lafiyar jama'a, matakin da zai iya kara karfin ikon gwamnoni ko jami'an kananan hukumomi, galibi yana ba su izinin aiwatar da irin wannan matakan ta hanyar fiat… [T] kotuna - gami da Kotun Koli - sun tsawaita wa jami'an jihohi gagarumin damar yin la'akari da abin da ake buƙata don magance haɗarin lafiyar jama'a."

A ranar 11 ga Disamba, 2020, FDA ta ba da izinin gaggawa don rigakafin Pfizer/ BioNTech Covid-19. Wannan ya biyo bayan izinin gaggawa don rigakafin Moderna a ranar 18 ga Disamba, 2020 da na Johnson & Johnson a ranar 27 ga Fabrairu, 2021.

A ranar 27 ga Disamba, 2020, Trump ya rattaba hannu kan wani lissafin kunshin tallafi na biyu na dala tiriliyan 2.3.

A ranar 28 ga Disamba, 2020, Trump ya rattaba hannu kan tallafin coronavirus na dala biliyan 868 da lissafin tallafin gwamnati a zaman wani bangare na Dokar Haɓaka Kayayyakin Kaya na 2021.

A ranar 29 ga Janairu, 2021, CDC da umarnin amfani da abin rufe fuska a isar da sufurin jama'a da kuma wuraren sufuri.

A ranar 11 ga Maris, 2021, Shugaba Biden ya rattaba hannu kan dokar Shirin Ceto na Amurka, wanda ya ba da wani zagaye na agajin Coronavirus tare da kiyasin farashin dala tiriliyan 1.844 (kimanin kashi 8.8 na GDP na shekarar 2020). Shirin ya maida hankali akai saka hannun jari a cikin martanin lafiyar jama'a da ba da taimako na lokaci ga iyalai, al'ummomi da kasuwanci. Ya tsawaita shirye-shiryen fa'idodin rashin aikin yi (ciki har da ƙarin fa'idodin rashin aikin yi), aika biyan kuɗi kai tsaye na $1,400 ga mutanen da suka cancanta, bayar da agaji kai tsaye ga gwamnatocin jahohi da ƙananan hukumomi, ƙara kayan aiki ga shirin rigakafin, da ƙarin kuɗi don sake buɗe makarantu.

A ranar 12 ga Agusta, 2021, FDA ta ba da izinin ƙarin adadin maganin rigakafi ga mutanen da ba su da rigakafi. A ranar 24 ga Satumba, 2021, Daraktar CDC Dr. Rochelle Walensky ta ba da shawarar ƙarfafawa ga mutane masu shekaru 18 zuwa 64 waɗanda ke cikin haɗarin Covid ban da waɗanda ke da yanayin rashin lafiya. A ranar 19 ga Nuwamba, 2021, FDA ta ba da izini ga masu haɓaka rigakafin Pfizer/BioNTech da Moderna ga duk manya. A ranar 29 ga Nuwamba, 2021, CDC ta ba da shawarar cewa duk wanda ya haura shekaru 18 ya karɓi ƙarin watanni shida bayan rigakafin su na biyu. A ranar 16 ga Disamba, 2021, CDC ta bayyana cewa an fifita allurar Pfizer/ BioNTech da Moderna akan maganin Johnson & Johnson.

A ranar 9 ga Satumba, 2021, Shugaba Biden ya ba da umarnin zartarwa wanda ke ba da umarnin yin rigakafin SARS-CoV-2 ga ma'aikatan ƴan kwangilar tarayya da masu kwangila. Hakan ya sa aka kori jama’a tare da yi musu alluran rigakafin asara.

A ranar 22 ga Disamba, 2021, FDA ta ba da izini Paxlovid, Pfizer's antiviral pill don maganin SARS-CoV-2. A ranar 23 ga Disamba, 2021, FDA ta ba da izini molnupiravir, kwayar cutar ta Merck. Magungunan antiviral FDA ta ba da izini ga marasa lafiya su sha a gida kafin su yi rashin lafiya isa asibiti.

A ranar 27 ga Disamba, 2021, CDC ta taƙaita lokacin da aka ba da shawarar don ware mutanen da suka gwada ingancin Covid daga kwanaki 10 zuwa kwanaki biyar idan babu alamun cutar, da kwanaki biyar ga mutanen da aka yi wa alurar riga kafi waɗanda suka gwada inganci.

A ranar 29 ga Maris, 2022, FDA ta amince da haɓaka na biyu na Pfizer/ BioNTech da Moderna don manya masu shekaru 50 da haihuwa. A wannan rana, CDC ta amince da ƙarfafawa na biyu ga manya 50 zuwa sama.

A ranar 18 ga Afrilu, 2022, Hukumar Kula da Sufuri ta ba da sanarwar cewa ba za ta ƙara aiwatar da umarnin rufe fuska a kan jiragen sama ba.

1 (b) ii Farkon kimantawa na martanin manufofin Covid na Amurka

Amsar da gwamnatin tarayya ta bayar na Covid bai yi daidai da nata shirye-shiryen gudanar da cutar ta 2020 ba, kuma masu kare manufofin ba su yi la'akari da waɗannan tsare-tsaren ba, a maimakon haka suna yawan ambaton martanin Covid na sauran ƙasashe.³

³Misali, A ranar 30 ga Afrilu, 2020 Trump ya rubuta tweet "Sweden tana biyan makudan kudade saboda shawarar da ta yanke na kin kulle-kullen."

A cikin littafinsa na 2021, Atlas ya yi magana game da katsewar da ke tsakanin abin da Fauci da Birx suke faɗi da kuma ra'ayin da ya samu daga ganawarsa ta farko da Shugaba Trump: "Na kuma gane, har ma a cikin wannan tattaunawar ta farko, cewa shi [Trump] ya yi takaici - ba kamar yadda har yanzu aka rufe kasar, amma ya bari hakan ta faru, sabanin tunaninsa." Duk da yake wannan yana iya ko bazai zama gaskiya ba, abin da ke damun shine ainihin yanke shawara da aka yanke, ba rashin jin daɗi na sirri ba, kuma kuɗin yana tsayawa ga shugaban kasa.

Don ƙarin bincike game da yadda martanin Amurka ga Covid ya zo ya karkata sosai daga yadda yakamata ya yi kama, mutum na iya yin tambayoyi kamar haka:

Wanene ya nada Kwamitin Ba da Amsa na Coronavirus na Fadar White House? Wanene a CDC ya yanke shawarar kin bin ko ba da murya ga shirye-shiryen gudanar da cutar ta CDC kafin 2020? Shin gazawar manyan masu yanke shawara su yi amfani da ƙa'idar daidaitawa wacce ke tsakiyar rantsuwoyi (kamar Hippocratic Oath, galibi ana taƙaita su kamar "Na Farko, kada ku cutar da") da ƙa'idodin babban yatsan hannu a cikin magani (misali, magani bai kamata ya zama mafi muni ba). fiye da cutar) mai laifi?

1 (b) iii mahallin shari'a

Menene kotuna suka yanke shawara da farko game da matakan tilastawa Covid?

Kotunan Amurka sun yi gwagwarmaya don tinkarar manufofin kutsawa da aka dauka da sunan yaki da Covid. A ranar 14 ga Satumba, 2020 hukunci a cikin shari'ar "Kotun Gundumar Amurka don Gundumar Yammacin Pennsylvania, Ayyukan Jama'a Na 2: 20-cv-677" (Gundumar Butler v. Wolf) ya ayyana kulle-kullen da ya sabawa tsarin mulki. Koyaya, wasu kotuna a duk faɗin ƙasar sun fassara abubuwa daban-daban, don haka kulle-kulle da sauran umarni sun ci gaba a cikin Amurka tun bayan wannan hukuncin.

Ana iya yin shari'ar cewa a nan gaba, ya kamata a samar da hanya mafi sauri don kotu don yanke hukunci kan manufofi kamar yadda aka yaɗa da tilastawa kamar waɗanda aka aiwatar a lokacin Covid.

1 (b) iv Canje-canje ga kiwon lafiya da zamantakewar tattalin arziki: Layukan bincike

Yawancin canje-canje ga al'ummar Amurka sun cancanci a matsayin martanin da suka dace ga Covid. Muhimman layukan bincike suna da alaƙa da manyan shawarwarin da aka yanke - misali,:

A cikin injina na gwamnati, wa ya gaya wa masu kula da asibitoci su rufe marasa lafiya da ba na Covid? Shin wannan shawarar ta zama doka kuma an yi ta bisa hujjar da ta haɗa da yin la'akari da tsadar kuɗi?
Wanene ya yanke shawarar rarraba zuwa "masu mahimmanci" tare da "masu mahimmanci" ma'aikata, da kuma "zaɓaɓɓu" tare da "ba zaɓaɓɓu" tiyata?
Wanene ya yanke shawarar tsarin tallafin ga asibitoci don cututtukan Covid?
Wanene ya yanke shawara a kan dokokin da za a aiwatar da su a fannin kula da tsofaffi?
Wanene ya yanke shawara kan manufofin da suka shafi keɓewa, rufe fuska, nisantar da jama'a, da hani kan 'yancin kai?

1 (c) Muryar kungiyoyi a wajen gwamnati

Ƙungiyoyin ƙwararru da yawa, waɗanda suka haɗa da ƙwararrun kiwon lafiyar jama'a, masana ilimin annoba, da masana tattalin arziki, sun haɗa buɗaɗɗen wasiƙu da koke waɗanda suka shafi masu yanke shawara a wannan lokacin. 'Yan siyasa sun kasance masu rauni ga wannan tasirin a wani bangare saboda buƙatar su na ganin suna yin wani abu game da abin da ake ɗauka a matsayin babbar barazana.

An nemi musamman masana tattalin arziki da su ba da gudummawa ga tsarin tsarin Covid, kuma lokacin da suke, me suka ce? Idan ba a tambaye su ba, me ya sa ba a yi su ba, idan aka ba da yawan tabarbarewar tattalin arziƙin da ba za a iya yiwuwa ba daga martanin manufofin Covid, kamar yadda aka yarda da shi a cikin tsare-tsaren gudanar da cutar ta pre-2020?

1 (c) i Masana tattalin arzikin Amurka da Turai

A cewar Scott Atlas, ba a nemi manyan jami'an tattalin arziki a cikin gwamnatin Amurka da su yi la'akari da manufofin Covid. A cikin wani taron manema labarai ba a yi la'akari da tsadar tattalin arziki na kulle-kulle ba.

A wajen gwamnati, masana tattalin arziki sun bayyana ra'ayinsu? Mikko Packalen da Jay Bhattacharya sun nuna a ranar 29 ga Agusta, 2021:

Masana tattalin arziki, waɗanda suka yi nazari da rubutu game da waɗannan al'amuran don rayuwa, suna da nauyi na musamman don ƙara ƙararrawa. Kuma kodayake wasu sun yi magana, yawancin ko dai sun yi shiru ko kuma suna haɓaka kulle-kulle. Masana tattalin arziki suna da aiki ɗaya - farashin sanarwa. A kan COVID, sana'ar ta gaza.

Don goyan bayan wannan takaddama, ranar 7 ga Afrilu, 2020 da Financial Times bayar da rahoton cewa:

Wani sabon binciken ƙwararrun masana tattalin arziki na IGM na manyan masana tattalin arziƙin Amurka sun nemi ra'ayinsu game da sanarwar "Yin yin watsi da matsananciyar kulle-kulle a daidai lokacin da yuwuwar sake bullar cutar zai haifar da babbar illar tattalin arziki fiye da ci gaba da kulle-kullen don kawar da sake dawowa. kasadar”. Kashi XNUMX cikin XNUMX na kwamitin sun amince, sauran ba su da tabbas ko kuma ba su amsa ba. Babu kwararre daya da ya saba.

A cikin Turai, kashi 65 cikin 4 na masu amsa sun yarda cewa "matsanancin kulle-kulle - gami da rufe kasuwancin da ba su da mahimmanci da tsauraran ƙayyadaddun motsin mutane - na iya zama mafi kyau ga tattalin arziƙin a cikin matsakaicin lokaci fiye da ƙarancin matakan tashin hankali". Kashi XNUMX ne kawai cikin ɗari ba su yarda ba.

Rachel Griffith, shugabar kungiyar tattalin arzikin Royal ta Burtaniya kuma farfesa a fannin tattalin arziki a Jami'ar Manchester, an ruwaito yana da ra'ayi mai zuwa:

Ms Griffith ta ce "A bayyane yake akwai tsada" ga makullin, "amma menene rashin gaskiya? Farashin rashin dauke da kwayar cutar zai fi girma - har ma da tattalin arziki. " Ba wai kawai ceton rayuka yana da mahimmanci ba, amma tsoron kamuwa da cuta zai haifar da rugujewar tattalin arziki koda kuwa babu matakin gwamnati, in ji ta.

A cikin tunaninsu, irin waɗannan masana tattalin arziƙin sun zo ga ra'ayin cewa za a rushe al'umma ko da ba tare da umarnin kulle-kulle ba - ko saboda fargabar yaduwar cutar da ke haifar da "kulle kai," wahala saboda shaida abokai da dangi mutuwa na Covid, ko ma saboda manyan ma'aikatan da ke mutuwa na Covid kuma ta haka ke lalata tattalin arziƙin - irin wannan ƙarancin kuɗin tilasta kowa ya zauna a gida zai zama kaɗan. Babu wata ƙima da aka sanya a cikin wannan dalili akan 'yanci da hukuma. Bugu da ƙari, irin waɗannan imani ba su fito fili sun fahimci yarjejeniya ta kimiyya kafin 2020 ba, bisa zurfin fahimtar cututtukan cututtukan da Henderson da sauransu suka cimma, kuma ba a gwada su ba na kwatanta abin da ya faru a yankuna iri ɗaya waɗanda suka ɗauki manufofi daban-daban.

Gigi Foster da Paul Frijters bayanin kula dangane da tambayar IGM Kwararrun Tattalin Arziki Tattalin Arziki tambayar tambayar cewa "wannan babbar tambaya ce, kamar yadda kalmominta kaɗai ke gayyatar mai amsa don yarda, kuma yana ɗaukar alaƙa tsakanin kulle-kulle da yanayin hoto. Har yanzu, ƙwararrun ƙwararrun tattalin arziki na PhD waɗanda ke aiki don manyan jami'o'in duniya za su iya yiwuwa suna da ƙwarewar da ake buƙata don tsayayya da matsananciyar matsin lamba don samun takamaiman ra'ayi kan tambayar binciken kai tsaye da ke da alaƙa da ƙwarewarsu. Duk da haka, babu wani masanin tattalin arziki Ba'amurke a cikin rukunin da ya sami sabani da bayanin da ke sama. Kashi 14% na masu amsa 44 ne kawai suka amsa "Babu tabbas," kuma 7% sun ƙi.⁴

⁴ Waɗannan marubutan sun lura cewa waɗanda suka zaɓi “Ba a tabbata ba” sune David Autor, Linan Einav, Pinelopi Goldberg, Jonathan Levin, Jose Scheinkman, da James Stock. Wadanda suka kauracewa zaben sune Abhijit Banerjee, Amy Finkelstein, da Caroline Hoxby.

Zaɓuɓɓukan da aka zaɓa daga masana tattalin arzikin Amurka an buga su a cikin 2020 da 2021 don goyon bayan kulle-kulle:

A May 2020 takarda by Barrot et al ya ce "rufe kasuwancin da gwamnati ta bayar na iya kashe dala biliyan 700 kuma ya ceci rayuka 36,000 ya zuwa yanzu."
A 14 Mayu 2020 takarda by Courtemanche et al. An yi gardama dangane da manufofin nisantar da jama'a cewa "da za a sami yaduwar COVID-19 sau goma a ranar 27 ga Afrilu ba tare da umarnin mafaka ba (la'o'i miliyan goma) kuma fiye da sau talatin da biyar mafi girma ba tare da kowane ɗayan huɗun ba. matakan (harkoki miliyan talatin da biyar)."
A 12 Oktoba 2020 yanki in Jama by Cutler et al. ya kalli farashin cutar ta Covid, amma ya kasa bambance farashin Covid da kanta daga farashin martanin sa, kamar kulle-kulle. Ya samo "ƙididdigar ƙididdiga ta kuɗaɗen kuɗi na cutar ta COVID-19 da ke da alaƙa da asarar da aka samu da raguwar lafiya… a sama da dala tiriliyan 16, ko kusan kashi 90% na babban kayan cikin gida na Amurka na shekara."
a cikin wata 14 Janairu 2021 takarda, Masanin tattalin arziki Anna Scherbina ta bayar da hujjar cewa "[t] ya gaza gwajin Sweden ya kwatanta cewa ba zai yuwu a zaɓi kare masu rauni ba tare da sa hannun gwamnati ba." Ta tsara yanayin yanayin kwayar cutar ta Covid ta amfani da samfurin "SIR" (mai saukin kamuwa, kamuwa da cuta, wanda aka dawo dashi) akai-akai da ake amfani da shi a cikin cututtukan cututtukan fata, kuma ta sake haɗa farashin kwayar cutar kanta tare da farashin amsawa. A cikin kalamanta, “An ƙididdige farashin kuɗaɗen nan gaba na cutar ta COVID daga abubuwa uku masu zuwa: (1) asarar yawan aiki saboda rashin aikin marasa lafiya; (2) tsadar magungunan da za a iya amfani da su a wani wuri; da (3) darajar rayukan da aka yi hasashe. Ana ƙididdige fa'idar kullewa bisa rage adadin sabbin cututtukan da ke ci gaba, don haka guje wa wani ɓangare na waɗannan farashin. ” Wannan hanyar tana yin watsi da duk wasu mummunan tasirin jin daɗin ƙulli. Daga nan sai ta yi kiyasin "idan Amurka ta sanya dokar hana fita baki daya irin na kulle-kullen a Turai, wanda, dangane da zato, zai yi kyau tsakanin makonni biyu zuwa hudu, zai samar da fa'ida ta kusan dala tiriliyan 1.2," ko 6% na GDP.

Waɗannan takaddun sun kasa ƙididdige babban farashin kulle-kulle da sauran matakan manufofin tilastawa, kuma ba su gane yuwuwar bin manufofin da aka yi niyya ba maimakon tsangwama da wuce kima. Ana iya bayyana waɗannan gazawar a wani bangare ta kasancewar yawancin masana tattalin arziki na ilimi ba su da cikakkiyar masaniya kan nazarin fa'idar tsadar kayayyaki, wanda a maimakon haka shine ra'ayin masana tattalin arziki na gwamnati da kwararrun masana tattalin arziki.

A gefe guda, ƴan ƴan tattalin arziki sun yi ƙoƙarin yin gwagwarmaya da wuri tare da cikakken tasirin kulle-kulle. Ɗaya daga cikin na farko shi ne John Birge na Jami'ar Chicago Booth School of Business wanda, tare da Scott Atlas, Ralph L. Keeney da Alexander Lipton, suka buga. wani A ranar 25 ga Mayu, 2020 yana jayayya cewa "Rufewar COVID-19 zai kashe Amurkawa miliyoyin shekaru na rayuwa."

A ranar 24 ga Agusta, 2020 Wall Street Journal ruwaito cewa "wasu kwararru suna kira ga masu tsara manufofi da su bi wadannan karin takunkumin da aka yi niyya da shisshigi maimakon wani zagaye na kulle-kullen. James Stock, masanin tattalin arziki na Jami'ar Harvard wanda, tare da masanin cututtukan cututtukan Harvard Michael Mina da sauransu, ke yin ƙirar yadda za a guje wa yawaitar mace-mace ba tare da wata matsala ba. "Za mu iya guje wa mummunan wannan bala'i ta hanyar horo," in ji Mista Stock."

Ƙarin masana tattalin arziki sun yi magana tun daga lokacin game da kulle-kulle. A cikin a takarda da aka buga a cikin Janairu 2022, masana tattalin arziki guda uku (Yaren mutanen Sweden daya, daya Danish daya, daya daga Jami'ar Johns Hopkins) sun kammala kan bitar takardu 100 da suka kulle a Turai da Amurka sun rage yawan mace-macen Covid da kashi 0.2% akan matsakaita. Wannan rahoto ya haifar da cece-kuce a kafafen yada labarai, ciki har da wata kasida iƙirarin cewa "Masana Tattalin Arziƙi Suna Haɓaka Yaƙin Kiwon Lafiyar Jama'a."

1(c) ii Masana tattalin arziki a wajen Amurka da Turai

A ranar 19 ga Afrilu, 2020, 256 masana tattalin arziki da na ilimi daga Ostiraliya, Amurka, Kanada, Burtaniya, da Japan sun fito wasiƙar budewa a goyan bayan kulle-kulle. Sun yi jayayya:

Ba za mu iya samun tattalin arziki mai aiki ba sai mun fara magance matsalar lafiyar jama'a sosai. Matakan da aka sanya a Ostiraliya, a kan iyaka da cikin jihohi da yankuna, sun rage adadin sabbin cututtukan. Wannan ya sanya Ostiraliya cikin halin kishi idan aka kwatanta da sauran ƙasashe, kuma bai kamata mu yi watsi da wannan nasarar ba.

Mun fahimci cewa matakan da aka ɗauka zuwa yau sun zo da tsada ga ayyukan tattalin arziƙi da ayyukan yi, amma mun yi imanin waɗannan sun fi ƙarfin rayukan da aka ceto da kuma guje wa lalacewar tattalin arziƙin saboda kamuwa da cuta mara iyaka. Mun yi imanin cewa tsauraran matakan kasafin kuɗi hanya ce mafi kyau don daidaita waɗannan farashin tattalin arziƙin fiye da sassauta ƙuntatawa da wuri.

Kamar yadda aka yi hasashe a cikin jawaban ku na jama'a, iyakokinmu za su buƙaci ci gaba da kasancewa ƙarƙashin kulawa na tsawan lokaci. Yana da mahimmanci a ci gaba da matakan nisantar da jama'a har sai adadin masu kamuwa da cuta ya yi ƙasa sosai, ƙarfin gwajin mu ya faɗaɗa sosai fiye da matakin da ya riga ya kwatanta, kuma ana samun yaduwar tuntuɓar juna.

Barkewar igiyar ruwa ta biyu zai yi matukar yin illa ga tattalin arzikin kasar, baya ga haifar da munanan asarar rayuka da ba dole ba.

Wannan wasiƙar tana nuna cewa waɗannan masanan tattalin arziki sun kasa gane tsadar kulle-kulle fiye da kunkuntar illolin tattalin arziki. Sun yi watsi da babban hasarar jin daɗin da ke fitowa fili har ma a farkon matakin kulle-kulle da rufe iyakokin. Bugu da ari, a cikin tunaninsu, illolin tattalin arziki sun tsaya a cikin wani nau'i daban-daban daga cutarwa ga rayuwar ɗan adam da jin daɗin rayuwa, waɗanda aka fi binciko su a cikin Sashe na 2. Don haka sun nuna wasu kuskuren gama gari game da waɗanda ba a horar da su a fannin tattalin arziki mai tsada.

Kamar yadda yake a cikin Amurka da Turai, duk da yawancin ra'ayin masana tattalin arziki a wasu ƙasashe suna goyan bayan ƙaƙƙarfan ƙuntatawa, wasu muryoyin sun ƙi yarda. A ranar 8 ga Yuni 2020, wasu masana tattalin arziki na Ostiraliya da sauran malamai da 'yan ƙasa suka rattaba hannu kan takardar bude wasika zuwa Majalisar Majalisar Dokokin Ostiraliya, tana neman nazarin fa'idar farashi. An tattauna wannan batu dalla-dalla a cikin a May 2022 takarda ta Gigi Foster da Paul Frijters. Takardar ta mayar da hankali ne kan “raunanin juriya da sana’ar tattalin arzikin Ostireliya ta yi a wannan lokacin, da kuma rawar da masana tattalin arzikin Australiya da yawa suka taka a matsayin masu ba da uzuri ga gazawar manufofin tattalin arziki na lokacin zaman lafiya a Australia.” Binciken nasu ya kammala da cewa galibin masana tattalin arziki na Australiya ba kawai sun manta da ainihin ƙa'idodin horon su ba, amma sun haɗa da abin da suke ɗauka a matsayin laifuffuka daga gwamnatoci. Maganganun da suka ba da shawarar: “Ga sana’ar tattalin arzikin Ostiraliya da al’umma gabaɗaya, muna tsammanin kwamitocin gaskiya hanya ce mai ma’ana don gane cewa sana’armu ta taimaka da kuma aiwatar da laifuka a wannan lokacin, don sanin waɗanda abin ya shafa cikin gida da na ƙasashen waje. laifuffuka, da kuma kafa hujjar gaskiya wadda za a ci gaba daga gare ta.”

1 (c) iii Matsayin "ƙananan masu tilastawa" akan (social media) da kuma cikin al'ummomi

A cikin cututtukan da suka gabata, marubuta a kafafen yada labarai sun kasance suna sane da tasirinsu ga al'umma kuma sun yi aiki da gaskiya wajen ba da rahoton mace-mace. An lura in The Lancet a ranar 25 ga Mayu, 2020 cewa:

A ƙarshen Yuli, 1957, Daily Mail ta ba da gargaɗi mai ban tsoro game da "sabuwar cutar mura ta Asiya" lokacin da wata yarinya 'yar shekara 1 ta kamu da rashin lafiya a Fulham. The Guardian ya ba da kyakkyawan sautin editan sa don karanta kanun labarai: "Crash Fight Against Asian' Flu '.

Koyaya, irin waɗannan kanun labarai sun banbanta kuma galibin jaridu da alama sun nuna halin gaskiya yayin bala'in. Har ila yau, mawallafa ba su son a gan su suna tada hankalin jama'a.

Duk da haka a cikin lokutan Covid, kafofin watsa labaru sun yi daban-daban, suna ta'azzara damuwa da hana yunƙurin kwantar da hankulan mutane.

Cin zali ya yi yawa ba kawai a kan kafofin watsa labarun da kuma a cikin kafofin watsa labaru na gargajiya ba, amma a cikin ofisoshi da kuma a sararin samaniya. Shagunan suna nuna wariya ga waɗanda ba a yi musu allurar ba, abokai sun zalunce wasu abokai don tilasta bin doka, kuma masu kula da makarantu sun sanya rayuwa cikin wahala ga yaran da ba a rufe su ba da kuma waɗanda ba a yi musu allurar ba. Wannan shi ne maimaita kai tsaye daga abin da ya kasance al'ada a Gabashin Turai da Soviet ta mamaye kafin 1990, inda maƙwabcin ya sanar da maƙwabcinsa.

Marubuta a kan dandamali daban-daban na kafofin watsa labaru sun gabatar da zarge-zarge game da muryoyin da ba su yarda ba, tare da alal misali Cibiyar Brownstone a matsayin wani ɓangare na yakin basasa kuma kamar yadda yake "kudi mai duhu," da Koch Foundation, Da kuma "Masu ƙaryata kimiyyar yanayi." An yi wa masu adawa da juna baya, ciki har da a shafukan sada zumunta. Masana'antar gida ta fito da wuri na "tambayoyin gaskiya," ana ba da tallafi ko dai ta jami'o'i ko kuma ta kafofin watsa labarai na yau da kullun, don wulakanta ra'ayoyin waɗanda suka riƙe abin da aka kwatanta a matsayin "misali, ra'ayi na tushen haɗari" kan batun. Yawancin wannan ya ƙunshi ƙuntatawa na kamfanoni masu zaman kansu akan 'yancin faɗar albarkacin baki, wanda ya haifar da tambayar da aka bincika a cikin Sashe na 3 na wannan takaddar. yadda za a tabbatar da 'yancin faɗar albarkacin baki lokacin da filin watsa labarai na jama'a ke mallakar.

A cikin ilimin kimiyya, jikuna kamar NIH sun shiga cikin lalata maganganun ra'ayoyin da ba su dace ba. Salon imel yana nuna yadda Fauci da abokan aikinsa sun lalata aikin Babban Sanarwar Barrington. Kafofin watsa labarai sun ba Scott Atlas horo da kuma makarantar. A Ostiraliya, an tauye mutanen da ke cikin sassan gwamnati waɗanda ke da madadin ra'ayi (kamar yadda cikakken bayani a cikin Littafin Sanjeev Sabhlok na 2020), wanda ya sa wasu suka yi murabus.

Gwamnati ta zama mai tilasta “maganar da ta dace” ta wasu hanyoyi yayin lokutan Covid, galibi ta hanyar yin amfani da ikonta don yin barazana ga kamfanonin watsa labaru waɗanda ba su bi ba. Tare da gwamnatin Biden mai shigowa, gwamnati ta fara suna neman kamfanonin kafofin sada zumunta su toshe 'yancin fadin albarkacin baki:

A watan Mayun 2021, Fadar White House ta fara wani kamfen na jama'a tare da haɓaka don dakatar da kwararar "bayanan kiwon lafiya" da ke da alaƙa da Covid-19. A cikin wani taron manema labarai a ranar 5 ga Mayu, 2021, Sakatariyar Yada Labarai ta Fadar White House Jen Psaki ta bayyana cewa Shugaban ya yi imanin cewa dandamalin kafofin watsa labarun suna da alhakin tantance lafiyar "lalata" da ke da alaka da allurar rigakafin Covid-19, cewa ta yin hakan ne ke da alhakin mutuwar Amurkawa. , kuma Shugaban ya yi imanin cewa shirye-shiryen "anti-aminci" sun kasance don aiwatar da wannan ƙarshen. A wasu kalmomi, idan kamfanonin fasaha suka ƙi yin sharhi, za su fuskanci binciken rashin amincewa - ko mafi muni. Ya zuwa watan Yuli, Babban Likitan Likita da HHS sun haɓaka matsin lamba ta hanyar ba da shawara kan batun, suna ba da umarnin dandamali na fasaha don tattara bayanai kan "yaɗawa da tasirin rashin fahimta" da "ba da fifikon ganowa da wuri na 'super-spreaders' da kuma maimaita masu laifi. "ta" impos[ing] bayyanannun sakamako ga asusun da ke saba wa manufofin dandamali akai-akai."

Umarnin gwamnati da ke kai hari kan 'yancin faɗar albarkacin baki kai tsaye suna cin zarafi na Farko, kamar yadda aka gane ta hanyar ƙaddamar da kalubalen shari'a gare su.

An ba da ƙarin cikakkun bayanai game da abin da ya faru a cikin kafofin watsa labarai yayin zamanin Covid a cikin Gidan jarida na bincike Cibiyar Brownstone ta fitar.

KASHI NA 2 Tasirin manufofin da aka yi: Layin bincike.

Amurka ita ce kasa ta farko a duniya da ta fara aiwatar da tsarin fa'ida mai tsada don manufofin jama'a a ciki 1981 a lokacin gwamnatin Reagan, kuma akwai ƙaƙƙarfan al'ada na gudanar da CBA ko ƙididdigar ƙididdiga don kimanta manufofin kiwon lafiya. Har yanzu, babu wani CBA da gwamnati ke jagoranta da aka bayar a ko'ina a cikin Amurka wanda ya kimanta ingancin manufofin Covid da ake aiwatarwa, kuma masana tattalin arziki a wajen gwamnati gabaɗaya ba su ci gaba da ra'ayinsu ba.

Idan aka kwatanta da sakamakon a cikin 2019, Amurka da duniya gaba ɗaya sun fi talauci, marasa lafiya, ƙwararrun ƙwararru, marasa aikin yi, kuma basu da 'yanci. Don sanya kowane ɗayan wannan koma baya ga manufa tare da amincewa, muna buƙatar rukunin asusun da za mu ƙididdigewa da kuma taƙaita tasirin tasirin manufofin tare cikin ma'auni guda ɗaya na 'abin da ke da mahimmanci,' kuma muna buƙatar hanyar da ta dace don gano abubuwan da ke faruwa. wani bangare na lalacewa saboda manufofin maimakon sabuwar kwayar cutar kanta, ko yanayi, ko wani abu da ke waje da ikon ɗan adam. Muna ɗaukar waɗannan batutuwan bi da bi.

2 (a) Menene ya fi muhimmanci?

Muna ɗaukar sanarwar 'Yancin kai da mahimmanci da ke magana game da 'yancin ƴan ƙasa da ba za a iya raba su ga 'rayuwa,' yanci, da neman farin ciki ba." Saboda haka, duk canje-canje zuwa yawan shekarun rayuwa na rayuwa ya kamata a ƙidaya kuma a gane yawan shekarun da aka yi amfani da su fiye da adadin rayuka, sanin ma'anar gardama cewa kowa ya mutu a ƙarshe, don haka babu wata manufar da za ta iya hana mutuwa amma kawai don jinkirta shi. ta hanyar yi wa mutane tambaya mai zuwa (ko kuma kusa): “Gaba ɗaya, yaya kuka gamsu da rayuwar ku a zamanin yau?”

Martanin da mutum ya bayar kan wannan tambaya, wanda aka amsa a ma'aunin 0 (gaba daya bai gamsu ba) zuwa 10 (gaba daya ya gamsu), ana fassara shi a matsayin kuri'ar ta game da yadda yanayinta ya sa ta gamsu da rayuwarta. Canjin maki 1 a cikin wannan ma'auni na 0-10 na mutum ɗaya na shekara guda ana kiransa WELLBY, kuma shine ainihin rukunin asusun da zai iya ɗaukar canje-canje a cikin jin daɗin ɗan adam a wurare daban-daban.

Littattafai game da gamsuwa da rayuwa sun sami tasiri ga jin daɗin ɗan adam daga canje-canje zuwa yanayin mutane a wurare daban-daban. Misali, mun san cewa, a wajen magana, yin aure yana da tasiri a kusan KYAU ɗaya: a kusa da lokacin aure mutane sun fi farin ciki, sakamako mai daɗi wanda ke farawa kusan shekara guda kafin aure kuma ya ɓace bayan shekara guda bayan auren. . Tunda mutum mai lafiya yakan fuskanci kusan 6 KYAUTA a cikin shekara guda, wannan yana nufin mun san cewa yin aure yana da 'daraja' kusan adadin jin daɗin ɗan adam kamar watanni biyu na rayuwa: mutane za su yarda su rayu watanni biyu kaɗan a musayar. domin yin aure. Sabanin haka, idan wata manufa ta hana auren miliyan daya, to farashin WELLBY na wannan yana kusan shekaru 167,000 na rayuwa. Idan an kiyasta matsakaicin wanda aka kashe na Covid ya sami kusan shekaru 3 zuwa 5 masu kyau na rayuwa, kamar yadda Foster da Sabhlok (2022) ba da shawarar, to hana aure miliyan zai zama daidai da fama da mutuwar 35,000-50,000 na Covid. Hakazalika ana iya fassara halin kuɗaɗen matsalolin lafiyar hankali, rushewar yara, ƙarin matsalolin kiwon lafiya, da raguwar hidimar gwamnati na gaba zuwa ɓatacce WELLBYs, kuma ta haka zuwa 'yan shekarun farin ciki na rayuwa.

Hanyar WELLBY an haɓaka ta ne a Makarantar Tattalin Arziƙi ta London tsakanin 2017 da 2020 kuma gwamnatin Burtaniya ta karɓe ta a matsayin hanyar tantance sarƙaƙƙiyar manufofi. ⁵ An fara buga shi a cikin Frijters et al. (2020) kuma Baitulmar Burtaniya (2021) ta karbe shi don kimanta manufofin da kimantawa a duk cibiyoyin Burtaniya. New Zealand ta bi sawun kwanan nan. Hakanan ana ba da shawarar WELLBY don amfani da wasu ƙasashe ta Rahoton Farin Ciki na Duniya (misali, Helliwell et al. 2021).

⁵ Takardar WELLBY ta farko da aka buga ita ce Frijters et al 2020. Littafin Jagora wanda yayi bayani kuma yayi amfani da hanyar shine Frijters, P., & Krekel, C. (2021). An yi bayanin ɗaukar ainihin ƙa'idodin wannan hanyar da gwamnatin Burtaniya ta yi kuma an tsara ta a cikin Green Book ana amfani da shi a ko'ina cikin Ingila da Wales.

Duk da yake ba a aiwatar da cikakken kimantawar tattalin arziƙin na takamaiman NPI kamar rufe fuska, dokar hana fita, da umarnin alluran rigakafi ba, yanzu an yi amfani da hanyar WELLBY don kimanta makullin Covid a cikin Burtaniya (De Neve et al. 2020), Ireland (Ryan 2021) ), New Zealand (Lally 2021), Kanada (Joffe 2021), Australia (Foster 2020c; Foster and Sabhlok 2022), duniya, da ƙasashe daban-daban a cikin nahiyar Turai (Frijters da Krekel 2021, Frijters 2020b). Duk waɗannan tambayoyin sun kai ga ƙarshe cewa farashin kulle-kulle na Covid ya zarce fa'idodin su da aƙalla 3 zuwa 1, koda kuwa kulle-kullen zai ɗauki wata guda kawai. Yin amfani da mafi kyawun zato maimakon zato-game da kulle-kulle, ƙaddarar da aka saba yi ita ce kulle-kulle yana da farashi sau 50 fiye da fa'idodi. An cimma irin wannan matsaya ta hanyar tsohuwar dabarar QALY wacce ba a auna ingancin rayuwa ta hanyar gamsuwar rayuwa amma a maimakon haka ta hanyar tambayoyin da suka shafi lafiya ko ta daidaitattun matakan ƙimar tattalin arziki. A kwanan nan bita na nazarin fa'ida 100 na farashi bisa ga sakamakon da aka gano na zahiri, sabanin simintin ƙira, ya kai ga ƙarshe irin wannan. Misali, Miles et al. (2020) ya sami rabon 50: 1 na farashi zuwa fa'idodin kulle-kulle a cikin Burtaniya, yana kallon lafiyar jiki kawai.

2 (b) Abubuwan da ba su dace ba

Tambaya mai mahimmanci a kowace kimanta manufofin ita ce menene sakamakon zai kasance ƙarƙashin manufofin daban da wanda aka aiwatar a zahiri. Ba za a iya gudanar da tarihi tare da manufofi daban-daban ba, wanda zai zama mafi dacewa, don haka a aikace masu bincike sun daidaita don kwatanta sakamakon a yankuna da suka yi kama da juna kafin 2020 amma sun ɗauki manufofin Covid daban-daban, suna ƙoƙarin yin la'akari da yadda za su iya bambanta halaye na daban-daban. yankuna daban-daban. ⁶

⁶ The Rahoton Farin Ciki na Duniya na 2022 an rubuta faɗuwar faɗuwar farin ciki mai ban mamaki a duk duniya, tare da raguwa mai ƙarfi a cikin yankuna masu tsayi kuma mafi tsananin kulle-kulle.

Lokacin kwatanta sakamako tsakanin yankuna tare da saitunan manufofin Covid daban-daban, abin da ake kimantawa shine jimillar dubban ƙanana manufofin, kama daga ka'idodin keɓewar zamantakewa ga yara ƙanana zuwa rufe kasuwancin. Tasirin tarin manufofin a wani yanki da aka kiyasta ta wannan salon galibi ana yiwa lakabi da tasirin 'kullewa' ko na' manufofin sifili-Covid'. Duk da yake ba zai yiwu a samar da ainihin kimantawa ga kowane ƙananan manufofi ba, za a iya samun ƙa'idodin babban yatsa daga sakamakon ƙididdiga na jimlar manufofi masu mahimmanci ko žasa don gano ainihin tushen farashi, sabili da haka babban tasirin manufofi daban-daban.

A cikin nazarin fa'idar WELLBY a wasu ƙasashe, masu bincike sun kwatanta sakamako a ƙasarsu da na Sweden, ko kuma zuwa yanayin 'babu wani canji daga yanayin 2019'. Yin amfani da ɓangarorin farko da kyau yana nufin masu bincike suna ɗauka cewa ƙasarsu za ta ga canji iri ɗaya a cikin sakamako a wurare daban-daban kamar yadda Sweden ta fuskanta, da sun ɗauki manufofin Sweden. Alal misali, zato zai kasance cewa idan Birtaniya ta dauki manufofin Sweden, da ba ta ga wani canji a lafiyar hankali ba kuma kawai 6% na GDP ya karu a bashin gwamnati (wanda shine sakamakon Sweden) maimakon sau biyu. a cikin matsalolin lafiyar hankali da 20% na GDP ya karu a bashin gwamnati wanda Birtaniya ta dandana.

Ga Amurka, za mu iya yin abin da ya fi kyau, saboda bambancin manufofi tsakanin jihohi. Za mu iya yin tsokaci mai ma'ana game da farashi da fa'idodin ƙungiyoyin manufofin Covid daban-daban ta hanyar kwatanta manyan jihohi kamar New York da California tare da ƙananan jihohi kamar Florida, Texas, da South Dakota. Cibiyar Brownstone ta tattara bayanan bincike sama da 400 waɗanda suka gano kaɗan masu inganci, har ma da mummunan tasirin manufofin kulle-kulle da sauran hani.

2(c) Kimanin girman ƙimar manufofin Covid da fa'idodi

Abu mafi mahimmanci kuma mai fa'ida wanda ƙididdigar fa'idar fa'ida ta tushen jin daɗin rayuwa na manufofin Covid ya isar shine ma'anar girman tasirin daban-daban. Mun koyi inda za mu nemo barnar, kuma a yanzu muna da ka'idojin babban yatsa game da abin da ke cutarwa, abin da ba shi da kyau, da kuma abin da za a iya amfani da su a cikin saitunan daga ƙasa zuwa ƙauye zuwa kamfani.

Takardun WELLBY guda bakwai sun ƙididdige farashi da fa'idodi na Covid, ta amfani da bayanai bi da bi daga Burtaniya, Australia, New Zealand, Kanada, Ireland, Netherlands, da duniya gaba ɗaya. Mun samar da layin ƙasa na binciken da kuma mahimman ɓarna na inda suka ƙididdige babban farashi da fa'idodin zama, wanda ya bambanta da ɗan lokaci kaɗan, kamar yadda tare da ƙarin ɓata lokaci tasirin da ke zuwa nan gaba dangi. don lalacewa riga ya ci gaba yana ragewa. Manufar ita ce nuna manyan hanyoyin samun farashi da fa'idodi, da girman dangi wanda abubuwa daban-daban ke da mahimmanci ga layin ƙasa.

Tebur mai zuwa yana gabatar da waɗannan ƙididdiga.

Ƙasa da Mawallafi/s	Binciken taƙaitaccen bayani	Mahimman bayanai na bincike
Birtaniya: De Neve, JE, Clark, AE, Krekel, C., Layard, R. da O'Donnell, G. (2020), 'Daukin Tsawon Shekarun Lafiyar Jama'a zuwa Zaɓin Siyasa', British Medical Journal, 371, m3853-m3853.	su nazarin farko na Afrilu 2020 ya ba da shawarar cewa kulle-kulle na Burtaniya na iya zama mai fa'ida har zuwa 1 ga Mayu 2020, amma bayan haka za su ƙara haifar da babbar illa ga al'umma. Don cimma wannan ƙarshe, sun ɗauka yadda ya kamata cewa ayyukan gwamnati sun ragu da kusan sau 20 wajen siyan jin daɗi fiye da yadda aka samu a cikin wallafe-wallafe (wanda ke rage mahimmancin tasirin tattalin arziki).	Zato: Matsakaicin mutumin da aka ceto daga mutuwar Covid zai sake rayuwa shekaru 6 cikin koshin lafiya. Kudin kullewa a cikin Afrilu 2020 kusan kusan kusan: rage samun kudin shiga (30%), karuwar rashin aikin yi (49%), rage lafiyar kwakwalwa (12%), rage dogaro ga gwamnati (6%), rage makaranta (3%) . Fa'idodin kulle-kulle a cikin Afrilu 2020 suna cikin wannan rabo: rage mutuwar SARS-CoV-2 (84%), rage mutuwar hanya (3%), rage zirga-zirga (5%), rage fitar da CO2 (4%), ingantacciyar ingancin iska. (4%). Kudin kulle-kulle yana ƙaruwa tare da dogon lokaci amma fa'idodin ba su ƙaru daidai gwargwado.
Birtaniya: Frijters, P., Foster, G. da Baker, M. (2021), Babban tashin hankali na Covid. Cibiyar Jarida ta Brownstone, Austin, TX.	Kudin kulle-kullen Burtaniya ya kasance aƙalla sau 28 a cikin 2020 fiye da kowane fa'ida (ƙididdigar misali: wata guda na kulle-kulle irin na Burtaniya a cikin ƙasashen Yammacin Turai da aka haɓaka ana kiyasta kusan kashi 250% na asarar da kashi 0.3% na yawan jama'a ke wakilta. mutuwa daga Covid).	Zato: Matsakaicin mutumin da aka ceto daga mutuwar Covid zai sake rayuwa shekaru 3. Kudin kullewa ya fi ta hanyar rage jariran IVF (11%), rage lafiyar kwakwalwa (ƙosar da rayuwa) (33%), matsalolin kiwon lafiya na gaba (10%), bashin gwamnati (41%), da cutarwa ga ilimin yara (5%) ). Fa'idodin sune akasari waɗanda aka kawar da mutuwar Covid (97%) da kuma dogon lokaci na Covid (3%). Lalacewar kulle-kulle yana ƙaruwa kowane wata, amma fa'idodin ba sa yin (tunda tarin waɗanda ke cikin haɗarin ba ya ƙaruwa gaba ɗaya).
Ireland: Ryan, A. (2021), 'Bincike na Fa'idodin Kuɗi na COVID-19 Lockdown a Ireland', Takarda Ayyukan Cibiyar Nazarin Kimiyyar Zamani.	"An gano cewa farashin kulle-kullen ya ninka fa'idodin sau 25. Bugu da ƙari, kowane ɗayan kuɗin da aka ɗauka da kansa ya fi yawan fa'idodin kullewa. "	Zato: Matsakaicin mutumin da aka ceto daga mutuwar Covid zai sake rayuwa shekaru 5. A cikin yanayin ra'ayin mazan jiya, farashin kulle-kulle yana cikin wannan rabo: Rage kashe kuɗin da gwamnati ke kashewa kan kiwon lafiya (35%), asarar jin daɗin rayuwa (keɓewa) (49%) da karuwar rashin aikin yi (17%). Amfanin an hana mutuwar Covid. Kudin kullewa yana ƙaruwa akan lokaci tunda rashin aikin yi ya ƙaru; amfanin ya kasance iri daya.
New Zealand: Lally, MT (2021), 'Farashin Kuɗi da Fa'idodin Kulle-kulle na Covid-19 a New Zealand', MedRxiv: Sabar Preprint don Kimiyyar Lafiya.	Lally ya gano cewa kulle-kulle na iya ceton mutuwar 1,750 zuwa 4,600 na Covid akan farashi "aƙalla sau 13 adadin ma'aikata gabaɗaya na $ 62,000 don ayyukan kiwon lafiya a New Zealand… Standard benchmark."	Zato: Matsakaicin mutumin da aka ceto daga mutuwar Covid zai sake rayuwa shekaru 5. Takardar ta yi kiyasin cewa an ceci QALY 18,400 daga Covid ta hanyar kulle-kulle amma 3,800 QALYs sun yi asara daga illolin rashin aikin yi na dogon lokaci. Farashi shine GDP da aka riga aka tsara ta hanyar kulle-kulle na farashin magani na Covid da duk wani abin da aka samar daga aiki daga gida. Wannan yana samar da dala miliyan 1.04 a kowace QALY da aka ajiye akan ma'auni na $0.062 miliyan.
Kanada da duniya: Joffe, A. (2021), 'COVID-19: Sake Tunanin Rukunin Kulle', Yankunan Fasaha a Lafiyar Jama'a, 9, doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.625778	Takardar tana gudanar da CBA don Kanada kuma ta gano cewa illolin kulle-kulle a cikin WELLBYs shine mafi ƙarancin fa'idodin sau 10. Babban CBA ga duk duniya ya gano cewa cutarwa za ta kasance mafi ƙarancin sau 5 kuma har zuwa sau 87 fa'idodin.	Zato: Matsakaicin mutumin da aka ceto daga mutuwar Covid zai sake rayuwa shekaru 5. Ga mafi ƙarancin (sau 5 yana cutarwa) "CBA na duniya," takardar ta keɓance kashi 66% na farashin makulli zuwa koma bayan tattalin arziki, 15% zuwa rashin aikin yi da 18% ga kaɗaici. Jimlar su ya ninka adadin mutuwar Covid sau biyar da aka ceto ta hanyar kulle-kulle. Ga CBA ta Kanada, takardar ta keɓe 36% na farashi zuwa koma bayan tattalin arziki, 8% zuwa rashin aikin yi da 55% ga kaɗaici.
Australia: Foster, G. (2020), 'Takaitacciyar Takaitacciyar Analytic Analysis', Majalisar Victoria.	CBA ta gano cewa "mafi ƙarancin farashi na kulle-kulle na wata ɗaya an kiyasta a QALYs 110,495… kiyasin fa'idar kulle "ad infinitum" (ba kowane wata ba) shine 50,000 QALYs". A cikin tsawon shekaru biyu, wannan yana haifar da lahani na aƙalla (110495*24/50000), watau sau 53 kowane fa'ida.	Zato: Matsakaicin mutumin da aka ceto daga mutuwar Covid zai sake rayuwa shekaru 5. CBA tana keɓance farashin kulle-kulle don rage jin daɗin rayuwa (75%), rage ayyukan tattalin arziki (23%), ƙara kashe kashe kai (1%) da albashin da aka riga aka ɗauka na yara daga rushewar makaranta (1%).
Australia: Foster da Sabhlok (2022). Takaitacciyar Takaitacciyar "Shin kulle-kulle da rufe kan iyakoki suna ba da 'mafi kyau'?"	CBA ta gano cewa farashin makullin Covid na Ostiraliya ya fi sau 60 girma fiye da fa'idodin da suka bayar.	Matsakaicin mutumin da aka ceto daga mutuwar Covid zai sake rayuwa tsawon shekaru 5 (an ceton rayuka shine a net adadi bayan cire mutuwar da ba za a iya hana su ta hanyar kulle-kulle ba). Ana keɓance farashin kulle-kulle kamar haka: asarar GDP da ƙarin kashe kuɗi (49%), asarar jin daɗi (44%), adadin mutuwar da ba na Covid-2020 ba a cikin 2021 da 1 (XNUMX%), da ƙimar halin yanzu na farashi na gaba (XNUMX%). raguwa a cikin rayuwar gaba ɗaya na duk Australiya, asarar haɓakar yaran da aka haifa a lokacin kulle-kulle, da ya rasa aikin gaba na yaran da suka kai shekaru makaranta yayin kulle-kulle) (6%).
Frijters, P. da Krekel, C. (2021), Littafin Jagora don Tsara Manufofin Lafiya: Tarihi, Ka'idar, Aunawa, Aiwatarwa, da Misalai. Jami'ar Oxford Press, Oxford, UK.	Littafin ya gano cewa "yanayin 'ƙullawa da kawarwa' ya fi kusan sau 3 tsada ta fuskar jin daɗin rayuwa fiye da laissez-faire, yanayin kasuwanci-kamar yadda aka saba. Kuma wannan rabo yana amfani da zato da lambobi waɗanda ba su da ɓacin rai game da 'kasuwanci-kamar yadda aka saba' da kuma kyakkyawan fata game da 'kamawa da kawarwa'. Ƙarƙashin zato mai ma'ana, farashin yana da sauƙi sau hamsin mafi girma a ƙarƙashin dabarun tattarawa fiye da dabarun kasuwanci kamar yadda aka saba. "	Matsakaicin mutumin da aka ceto daga mutuwar Covid zai sake rayuwa shekaru 5. Akwai tsammanin cewa kulle-kulle na 'yan watanni kawai zai ceci rayuka miliyan 27 amma miliyan 3 za su mutu duk da haka. An kasafta farashin kulle-kulle kamar haka: asarar rayuka da ba za a iya kaucewa daga Covid (3.5%), raguwar jin daɗin jama'a gabaɗaya (56.7%), rashin aikin yi (21%) da asarar kudaden shiga na gwamnati (18.7%).
Frijters, P. (2020b), 'Vanuit een Geluksperspectief Zijn de Kosten van de Coronamaatregelen Veel Hoger dan de Baten', Tattalin Arziki Statistische Berichten (ESB), Nuwamba 2020, 510-513 + shafi kan layi.	Takardar ta yi nazarin farashi da fa'idodin kulle-kulle na Dutch, tare da kammala cewa farashin ya fi sau 20 sama da fa'idodi.	Matsakaicin mutumin da aka ceto daga mutuwar Covid zai sami ƙarin shekaru 3-5 na farin ciki. Kudin kulle-kulle bashi ne na gwamnati (92%), asarar jin dadi kai tsaye (3.5%), rashin aikin yi (2.8%), da kuma jawo mutuwar Covid (1.7%).

Hanya mai sauƙi don taƙaita wannan tebur ita ce a ce ana iya samun manyan kuɗaɗe huɗu na kulle-kullen a cikin bashin gwamnati, tasirin jin daɗin rayuwa kai tsaye (wanda galibi ke haifar da tasirin lafiyar hankali), rushewar ayyukan kiwon lafiyar jiki, da rashin aikin yi. Baya ga bambance-bambance a cikin takamaiman manufofin kulle-kulle a cikin ƙasashe, babban dalilin da lambobin suka bambanta a cikin waɗannan ƙididdigar fa'idar fa'ida shine saboda binciken da aka yi a baya har yanzu ana tsammanin kulle-kulle zai ɗauki watanni ɗaya zuwa uku, tare da sakamakon da yawancin masu bincike ke tsammanin za su mamaye. Sakamakon da ya daɗe bayan kulle-kulle (watau rashin aikin yi da bashi). Binciken da aka yi daga baya zai iya amfani da bayanai kan abin da ya faru yayin kulle-kulle masu tsayi, don haka sun sami damar ƙaddamar da ƙarin tasirin kai tsaye ga ƙimar da aka auna da lalacewar lafiyar jiki da ke bayyane a cikin bayanan.

2(c) Ina farashi zai zama mafi girma ko ƙasa a Amurka?

Ƙarshen teburin da ke sama shine cewa a wasu ƙasashe, wata guda na kulle-kulle yana da tsada sama da asarar 0.1% na yawan jama'a saboda Covid. Har yanzu ba a yi wa Amurka yadda ya kamata ba. Shin ya kamata mu yi tsammanin abubuwa za su yi muni ko mafi kyau a Amurka?

Yi la'akari da wasu mahimman wuraren lahani a cikin 2020-2022:

Cin zarafin matasa da kashe-kashen kai

Dangane da tsammanin farko, babu wata alama da ke nuna cewa kisan kai ya karu a Amurka. Hakika, bayanan da CDC ta ruwaito ba da shawarar raguwar raguwa sosai a cikin 2020 (3%). Don haka babu wani tashin hankali na kashe kansa, wanda kuma gaskiya ne ga Turai.

Game da shaye-shaye, hoton ya fi muni. CDC ta ruwaito Fiye da Amurkawa 100 000 ne suka mutu sakamakon yawan shan kwayoyi a cikin shekara zuwa Afrilu 2021… Bugu da ƙari, gazawar zuciya masu alaƙa da shaye-shaye sun haura, tare da a binciken da aka buga a ranar 26 ga Mayu 2021 yana ba da rahoton cewa a cikin Amurka "kamun kifin zuciya da ke da alaƙa ya karu da kusan kashi 40 cikin 2020 a cikin ƙasa a cikin XNUMX, tare da haɓaka mafi girma tsakanin ƙabilanci / ƙabilanci, a cikin ɓarna na tattalin arziki." Game da matasa, akwai wasu rahotanni cewa "[p] yawan samari da ke ba da rahoton amfani da miyagun ƙwayoyi ya ragu sosai a cikin 2021 yayin da cutar ta COVID-19 ta jure."

A bayyane yake cewa a cikin Amurka, shaye-shaye da kuma mace-mace daga shaye-shaye sun tashi, amma ba a fayyace dalilin hakan ba. Nawa sakamakon waɗannan sakamakon ya bambanta tsakanin jihohi masu manufofin Covid daban-daban za a iya bincikar su.

Sakamakon shiga aikin karfi

Adadin shiga aikin sojan Amurka ya ragu daga kashi 63.4 a watan Fabrairun 2020 zuwa kashi 60.2 a cikin Afrilu 2020. Mata masu yara sun bar aikin fiye da kowane rukuni. Ofishin Kididdiga na Ma'aikata a ranar Mayu 6 ya kasance 2022 "Dukkanin yawan shiga aikin ma'aikata, a kashi 62.2, da yawan yawan aiki, a kashi 60.0, ba a sami canji kaɗan a cikin wata ba. Waɗannan matakan kowane maki 1.2 na ƙasa da ƙimar su na Fabrairu 2020. ”

A taƙaice, Amurka ta ga raguwa na ɗan gajeren lokaci na maki 3.2 a cikin haɗin gwiwar ma'aikata, wanda ke wakiltar kusan kashi 5% na ma'aikatan da aka yi aiki a baya, da raguwar maki 1.2 cikin dogon lokaci. Wannan ba gaskiya ba ne a Turai inda, idan wani abu, haɗin gwiwar ma'aikata ya tashi.

Bashin gwamnati da buga kudi

Gwamnatin tarayya ta Amurka ya karu da rancen sa sosai Bayan kamuwa da cutar Covid:

Tun daga Maris 1, 2020, rancen baitul mali ya karu da sama da dala tiriliyan 6. Yawancin wannan karuwar ya faru ne tun daga Maris 30, 2020, wanda ya kasance bayan dokar Taimakon Coronavirus, Taimako, da Tsaron Tattalin Arziki (CARES), mafi girman dokar agaji zuwa yau. …An yi hasashen ci gaba da karbar rancen tarayya a cikin watanni masu zuwa. Baitul mali tana tsammanin za su ci bashin dala biliyan 729 a cikin kwata na Janairu – Maris 2022.

An fi jawo wannan ta hanyar ƙarancin kuɗi. Sakamakon biyan bashin an gane dangane da gwamnatocin jihohi da na kananan hukumomi:

Haɗin kai mai ban sha'awa na raguwar kudaden haraji, rikodin rashin aikin yi, da hauhawar farashin kiwon lafiya sun sa su rage kashe kashe don samar da ababen more rayuwa da ilimi - wanda jihohi da biranen su ne ke kan gaba wajen samun kuɗi na farko.

Dindin haihuwa

Wani sanannen raguwar haihuwa a cikin Amurka ya bayyana a lokacin barkewar cutar kusan kashi 5 zuwa 10%, wanda ya fara wasu watanni 9 bayan kulle-kullen farko. The Ofishin Kididdiga na Amurka ya ruwaito "Shaidar da ke nuna cewa cutar ta shafi haihuwa za a iya ganin farawa daga Disamba 2020." Ana iya ganin irin wannan raguwar a gabashin Asiya mai nisa (China, Japan) da Kudancin Turai (Italiya, Spain), amma ba Arewacin Turai (Jamus, Scandinavia).

Yin nazari mai kyau wanda ya kwatanta jihohin Amurka tare da manufofin kullewa daban-daban zai zama mai ba da labari. Matsayin da yaran da ba a haifa ba ya kamata a ƙidaya su a matsayin mara kyau batu ne na falsafa ƙaya. ⁷

⁷ Don tattaunawa mai dacewa ta manyan malamai na duniya (wadanda basu yarda da wannan batu ba), duba nan.

Ƙididdiga masu yawa na mutuwa

A cikin Amurka, akwai shaida (Hoto a ƙasa) na yawan mace-mace tsakanin waɗanda ke ƙasa da 75 da sama da 25 idan aka kwatanta da abin da za a iya tsammanin idan aka kwatanta da shekarun rarraba mutuwar Covid, musamman bayan rabin na biyu na 2021. Daga gidan yanar gizon CDC. na Yuni 1st 2022:

Wannan yana gaya mana cewa raƙuman ruwa na Covid har zuwa watan Yuni 2021 ba su da ɗan ƙaramin tasiri kan yawan adadin mutuwa a cikin rukunin shekaru 25-44 da shekaru 45-65. Madadin haka, an sami karuwar ƙarin mace-mace sakamakon allurar rigakafin da aka fara a tsakiyar 2021, da karuwar mace-mace bayan tsakiyar 2020 a cikin waɗannan shekarun. Don kewayon 65-74 muna kuma ganin wannan kaka na 2021 ya karu a yawan mace-mace da yawan karuwar mace-mace bayan tashin farko na Covid a farkon 2020. Idan aka yi la’akari da bayanan mutuwar shekaru na Covid, yana da alama cewa rashin kulawa da lafiya gabaɗaya ya kasance. wani abu a cikin waɗannan adadi na mutuwar da ba a saba gani ba. Yawan adadin wadanda suka mutu ya mamaye wadanda ke sama da 75. Duk da haka, mai shekaru 30 mai lafiya da ke mutuwa ya bar fiye da shekaru 50 na tsawon rai na rayuwa kuma don haka yana wakiltar asarar mafi girma ga shekarun jin dadi fiye da mutuwar 85- mai shekara tare da cututtuka, wani abu mai sauƙi a manta da shi a cikin kimantawa na lalacewa.

Sauran kasashen da suka kulle sun ba da rahoton karuwar adadin wadanda ba na Covid-200 ba (misali, Ireland, wacce ke ba da rahoton kusan mutuwar ba-Covid sama da XNUMX a wata). A kwatanta, a Sweden, an yi kusan a'a ko ma mummunan wuce gona da iri a ko'ina cikin 2021, duk da yawan ɗaukar rigakafin rigakafi a tsakanin tsofaffi (ko da yake ba a tsakanin matasa ba).

Game da rahotanni suna fitowa daga kamfanonin inshora game da yawan mace-mace a Amurka daga 2020 da haɓakawa a cikin 2021. Misali:

Bayanan inshorar rayuwa sun nuna karuwar mace-mace tun daga kwata na biyu na 2020, tare da cutar sankarau ta COVID-19, gami da tashin hankali musamman a cikin kwata na uku na 2021-39 bisa dari sama da abin da za a yi tsammani bisa 2017-2019 data. Wannan kwata ya kasance na musamman ga ƙungiyoyi masu shekaru 25-34, 35-44, 45-54, da 55-64, wanda mace-mace ta haura kashi 81 cikin ɗari, 117 bisa ɗari, kashi 108, da kashi 70 bisa ga asali bi da bi. Mutuwar da aka danganta da COVID-19 ta kai kusan kashi uku cikin huɗu na yawan mace-mace a cikin watanni 18 da binciken ya duba. Amma a cikin waɗanda ke ƙasa da shekaru 45, COVID-19 ya kai ƙasa da kashi 38 na yawan mace-mace, in ji binciken.

A cikin 2020, ba a sami fitar da alluran rigakafi ba, don haka yawan mace-mace a cikin ƙananan yara a cikin 2020 ya bayyana. prima facie a danganta su da kulle-kulle. A Sweden, idan aka kwatanta, an sami ƙarancin mace-mace a cikin 2020 a cikin ƙungiyoyin da ke ƙasa da 65 fiye da matsakaicin shekara. Birtaniya (Ingila da Wales), duk da haka, ya sami mutuwar fiye da 27%. kasa da 65. Wannan yana nuna cewa kasashen da ke da kulle-kulle na iya samun mummunan sakamako ga mutanen kasa da shekaru 65. Gano ainihin dalilin mutuwar wadannan wuce gona da iri shine wani muhimmin aiki. Ɗaya daga cikin fitattun layin bincike shine bincikar rushewar ayyukan kiwon lafiya na yau da kullun, wanda ke haifar da cunkoson kiwon lafiya kamar su. ciwon daji ana gano shi a makara don haka ya haifar da mutuwar siyasa.

Wata babbar matsalar lafiya da ta yi muni ita ce zaɓin salon rayuwa da ke da alaƙa da kiba. Akan wannan batu, bayanin rahoton rahoton "Binciken da Cibiyar Kula da Cututtuka da Cututtuka ta gudanar ta yin amfani da wani bincike na kusan manya na Amurka 4,000 da aka gudanar a watan Yunin 2020 ya gano cewa wani yanki mai girma na Amurkawa ya karu da cin abinci mara kyau, kayan zaki da abubuwan sha masu zaki a lokacin cutar ta COVID-19. ”

Lafiyar kwakwalwa da lafiyar Amurka sun ragu

Lockdowns ya haifar da tasiri mai yawa, gami da keɓewa da rufewar kasuwanci, wanda kowannensu yana da tasirin lafiyar kwakwalwa. Misali:

An ba da rahoto a ranar 8 ga Disamba 2020 ta Bloomberg game da Amurka cewa "[m] sama da gidajen abinci 110,000 sun rufe na dindindin ko na dogon lokaci a duk faɗin ƙasar yayin da masana'antar ke fama da mummunan tasirin cutar ta Covid-19. 'fiye da gidajen cin abinci 500,000 na kowane nau'in kasuwanci - ikon mallakar kamfani, sarkar da masu zaman kansu - suna cikin faɗuwar tattalin arziki kyauta'.

Wannan yana nufin masu gidajen abinci 500,000, da ma'aikatan gidan abinci da yawa, sun fuskanci bacin rai na ganin an jefa rayuwarsu cikin hadari.

Lafiyar tabin hankali ta sami matsala sosai a cikin ƙasashen da suka zaɓi aiwatar da umarnin zama a gida, tsauraran matakan nisantar da jama'a da abin rufe fuska. Wannan ya nuna cewa kwayar cutar tana da matukar hatsari kuma ta haifar da rushewar hulɗar ɗan adam ta yau da kullun, wanda ke da mahimmanci ga lafiyar hankali da walwala. EurekAlert, reshen labarai na Ƙungiyar Ci gaban Kimiyya ta Amirka (AAAS) ta buga da yawa nazarin wanda ke duba tasirin lafiyar kwakwalwa na kulle-kulle.

An Rahoton da aka ƙayyade na 18 May 2021 ya lura da sakamakon wani labarin da aka buga a cikin Jarida ta Ƙasashen Duniya na Ƙwararrun Ƙwararrun Ƙwararru, cewa cutar ta SARS-CoV-2 ta gabatar da "cikakkiyar guguwa" don tashin hankalin iyali, inda wasu yanayi da ba a saba gani ba suka haɗu don tsananta tashin hankalin abokan hulɗa, cin zarafin gida, tashin hankali na gida, da cin zarafin yara.

A ranar 7 ga Mayu, 2020 takarda (an sake dubawa a ranar 21 ga Mayu 2021) ya nuna cewa a cikin Amurka, “matakan kulle-kulle sun rage lafiyar kwakwalwa ta 0.083 daidaitattun sabani. Wannan babban mummunan sakamako gaba ɗaya mata ne ke tafiyar da shi. Sakamakon matakan kulle-kullen, gibin jinsi da ke akwai a lafiyar kwakwalwa ya karu da kashi 61%. Ba za a iya bayyana mummunan tasirin da ke tattare da lafiyar tunanin mata ta hanyar karuwar damuwar kuɗi ko nauyin kulawa ba."

Me game da shaida kai tsaye kan jin daɗin rayuwa? The Gallup-Sharecare Well-Being Index kullum yana tambayar Amurkawa 500 bazuwar don kimanta rayuwarsu akan Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale, inda "0" ke wakiltar rayuwa mafi muni da kuma "10" tana wakiltar mafi kyawun rayuwa a gare su. Ya zuwa babba wannan yana kwatankwacinsa da alamun jin daɗi a cikin Burtaniya.

A Rahoton da aka ƙayyade na 30 Maris 2022 ta Gallup ya nuna cewa yawan amsa 7 ko sama da haka ya ragu daga 56.1% pre-lockdowns zuwa ƙasa da 46.4% a tsayin kulle-kulle (Afrilu 23-36), yana murmurewa zuwa 53.2% a cikin Fabrairu 2022. A cikin 2017-2019 a matsayin Gabaɗaya index ɗin ya kusan 56% akan matsakaita, yayin da a cikin Maris 2020-Fabrairu 2022 ya kasance 53%. Wannan 3% ya ragu a cikin kashi 7 ko mafi girma ("cirewa") yana kusan daidai da raguwar 5% a cikin matakan jin daɗin rayuwa gabaɗaya, ko 0.3 a cikin gamsuwar rayuwa akan sikelin 0-10. Wannan faɗuwar ta fi nuna matsalar lafiyar kwakwalwa.

Duk da yake 0.3 akan sikelin 0-10, ko 5% a cikin matakan jin daɗin rayuwa, bazai yi kama da yawa ba, ya kamata a tuna cewa wannan yana wakiltar dukan jama'a. Gaskiya ne, Gallup ba ya yin hira da yara, amma tun da mun san yara sun fi girma fiye da manya (duba sama), ya kamata a ba su akalla guda ɗaya. Sautin shekaru biyu na 0.3 a cikin gamsuwar rayuwa ga Amurkawa miliyan 330 yana wakiltar asarar shekaru miliyan 33 na jin daɗi (ko 33 QALYs). Idan aka yi la'akari da cewa matsakaicin mutuwar Covid yana wakiltar asara tsakanin shekaru 1 zuwa 5 na jin daɗin rayuwa, hakan yana nufin tasirin jin daɗin kansa kai tsaye ya yi daidai da aƙalla mutuwar Covid miliyan 6.5, kuma fiye da aƙalla aƙalla miliyan 11. Tun da ba a samun irin wannan faɗuwar jin daɗi a cikin ƙasashe ba tare da kulle-kulle ba, babban ɓangaren wannan tabbas yana iya kulle kansu (kamar yadda masanan lafiya suka annabta tun da wuri: duba Frijters et al. 2021).

A duk waɗannan yankuna, Amurka ta sami sakamako mafi muni fiye da ƙasashen EU ko wasu ƙasashen Anglo-Saxon, wanda ke nuna ƙarin farashi na manufofin da aka bi.

2(c) ii fa'idodin manufofin Covid?

Adadin mutuwar Covid da aka ruwaito a Amurka ya fi na sauran ƙasashe da yawa. Shin yana da kyau a yi jayayya cewa Amurka ta hana adadin ƙarin mutuwar Covid ta hanyar manufofinta na Covid?

A nazarin kwanan nan Johns Hopeited kungiyar masana tattalin arziƙi uku sun fara duba wannan tambayar ta hanyar bincika karatun digiri a dadewa daga Amurka da kuma a duniya. Da'awar kanun labaran su shine cewa kulle-kulle ya rage yawan mace-mace na Covid da kashi 100% na duk mutuwar Covid, wanda ya samo asali daga ƙananan bambance-bambancen sakamako a cikin ƙasashe da jihohi a yanki ɗaya (Turai, Arewacin Amurka, Gabashin Asiya, da sauransu). Waɗannan marubutan sun kuma tattauna nazarin da ke kwatanta jihohi a Amurka waɗanda suka aiwatar da ƙarfi da tsawaita kulle-kulle ga waɗanda suka ɗaga kulle-kulle da wuri, gano ƙananan bambance-bambance a cikin adadin mutuwar Covid amma babban bambance-bambance a cikin wasu sakamako kamar rashin aikin yi, bashi, da lafiyar hankali, daidaici. tare da da'awar cewa kulle-kulle yana haifar da lalacewa. Duk da yake yawancin ƙididdigar fa'ida ta fa'ida sun ɗauka kawai cewa kulle-kulle za su sami fa'idodi, yanzu yana da ƙara shakku cewa suna ɗaukar kowane fa'ida.

Ƙimar da ke sama ta ta'allaka ne kan babban illolin da ke tattare da jin daɗin ɗan adam na abubuwa kamar rashin aikin yi, rushewar sarkar samar da kayayyaki, da talauci. Alal misali, rashin aikin yi yana da mahimmanci saboda marasa aikin yi suna jin dadi game da kansu, sakamakon da aka kama a cikin matsakaicin jin dadin jama'a. Abubuwan da ke haifar da rushewar kiwon lafiya suna bayyana a cikin shekarun rayuwa, ana iya gani a cikin kididdigar kididdigar mace-mace, kuma a fakaice an haɗa su cikin kimar rage ayyukan gwamnati nan gaba lokacin da aka biya bashin gwamnati. Rushewar sarkar samar da kayayyaki da ke bayyana a cikin al'amura kamar ƙarancin guntu al'amura saboda yawancin matakai sannan ba sa aiki, yana haifar da raguwar lafiya, tsawon rayuwa, da walwala. Kadan daga cikin mahimman ƙididdiga akan sakamako na ƙarshe don haka suna ɗaukar tasirin da yawa na rugujewar zamantakewa da tattalin arziƙin da martanin manufofin Covid ya haifar.

2 (d) Lalacewar abubuwan da ba a taɓa gani ba

Hanyar jin daɗin rayuwa ta tabbatar da kasancewa kayan aiki mai ƙarfi don kimanta barnar da aka yi ga alaƙar zamantakewa, lafiyar hankali, da ayyukan gwamnati, amma har yanzu ba ta iya isar da ingantaccen ƙiyasin mahimmancin lalacewa ga kayan da ba a taɓa gani ba. Ɗayan da ba za a iya amfani da shi ba ta manufofin Covid da aka ambata a cikin Sanarwar 'Yanci shine 'yanci. A bayyane yake cewa raguwar ’yancin kai wanda martanin manufofin Covid ya haifar yana da fa'ida sosai, saboda abu ne da miliyoyin suka mutu a baya. To mene ne kimarsa ta fuskar jin dadi? Ba mu sani ba, amma tabbas zai zama babba, idan aka yi la'akari da cewa ƙasashe masu 'yanci gabaɗaya suna da kyakkyawan sakamako na zamantakewa da tattalin arziƙi fiye da ƙasashe masu iko.

Amsar manufofin Covid-XNUMX ta Amurka ta ɗauki wasu farashi marasa ma'ana da yawa waɗanda suka cancanci a ambata. Waɗannan sun haɗa da tasirin dogaro ga cibiyoyi, tasirin sanya bautar addini ta tsananta, da asarar da ke tattare da rufe yawancin fannin fasaha. Amincewa da cibiyoyin zamantakewa da shiga cikin ayyukan al'umma da al'amuran al'adu sune ainihin sassan zama ɗan adam. Manufofin Covid sun shafi waɗannan fannonin rayuwa kai tsaye ta hanyar rufe cibiyoyin fasaha, majami'u, da sauransu, don haka mummunan tasirin manufofin Covid kan jin daɗin ɗan adam ta waɗannan hanyoyin ba shi da wata shakka.

2 (e) Hanyar gyara lalacewa

Wane irin ramawa da diyya don rama wadanda abin ya shafa na manufofin Covid duka sun dace kuma masu yuwuwa? Layukan bincike kaɗan sun bayyana a ƙasa.

Afirka ta Kudu ta yi ƙoƙarin cimma lissafin cikin gida tare da zunubai na wariyar launin fata ta hanyar gaskiya da tsarin sulhu wanda masu aikata laifuka za su iya yin magana cikin 'yanci game da munanan ayyukansu ba tare da an hukunta su ba. Wannan aƙalla ya haifar da fahimtar kurakuran da aka yi, da kuma ta'aziyya ga waɗanda abin ya shafa. Ana iya nazarin wannan tsarin don ganin ko wani abu makamancin haka ya dace da Amurka don yin la'akari da kurakuran manufofinta na Covid. Wani misalin da za a yi nazari shi ne Ostiraliya, wacce ta aiwatar da kwamitocin gaskiya da kuma binciken jama'a don gane radadin da 'White Australia Policy' ke haifarwa inda kawai mutanen da ke da launi mai kyau aka bar su shiga cikin ƙasar kuma akwai manufar tilastawa ƙungiyoyi na musamman.
Za a iya yin la'akari da uzuri tsakanin tsararraki inda manya za su iya ba wa 'ya'yansu hakuri kan lalacewar da rufe makarantu, rufe fuska, da kuma nisantar da jama'a suka haifar musu. Ana iya bin irin wannan tsari na neman gafarar ƙungiyoyi don ƙoƙarin yin la'akari da kurakurai kamar kulle tsofaffi a gidajen kula da tsofaffi da gidajen ritaya, hana dangi zuwa ziyara, da kuma saurin kamuwa da cutar hauka da sauran cututtuka.
Shin ya kamata a sake mayar da waɗanda aka kora ba daidai ba saboda 'rashin halayen Covid,' kamar ƙin allurar rigakafi? An biya diyya? Ko, aƙalla, an gane cewa an zalunce shi?
Shin ya kamata a biya diyya ga kananan 'yan kasuwa? Ɗaya daga cikin ra'ayi da Jeffrey Tucker ke yawo shine a Hutu na shekaru 10 akan takamaiman haraji da ƙa'idodi, ko da yake irin wannan abu ba zai zama da sauƙin gudanarwa ba.
Ana iya yin ramuwa ga jama'a don duk ayyukan ruguzawa da cin hanci da rashawa a lokutan Covid, misali ta hanyar harajin cin hanci da rashawa kan dukiya daga ribar da ba ta dace ba. Ana iya ɗaukar manyan da'awar diyya kan manyan kamfanoni waɗanda halayensu ba bisa ƙa'ida ba ne kuma suna cutar da lafiyar jama'a da walwala.

SASHE NA 3 Matakai na gaba ga cibiyoyin gwamnati, dokoki, da ka'idoji: Layukan bincike

3 (a) Canje-canje a cikin aikin gwamnati

Wadanne canje-canje ga rawar masu aiwatar da manufofi, tsarin da suke bi, da kuma hanyar ɗaga muryarsu - kuma menene canje-canje ga cibiyoyin gwamnati gabaɗaya - waɗanda ake so dangane da gazawar da aka samu a lokutan Covid? Tambayoyi da wasu ra'ayoyin sake fasalin suna bayyana a ƙasa, an haɗa su ta hanyar tsari da yanki na aiki. Yawancin waɗannan ra'ayoyin gyara an tattauna su gaba ɗaya a cikin Babban tashin hankali na Covid.

3 (a) i Canje-canje ga tsarin kula da lafiya

Layukan bincike da hanyoyin gyara don la'akari:

A ina ne a cikin tsarin kula da lafiyar jama'a aka yi amfani da bukatun jama'a, inda ake ganin 'mafarkin jama'a' ya hada da lafiyar kwakwalwa da lafiyar yara da manya? Sassan CDC an ba su aikin sa ido kan lafiyar kwakwalwa, amma ba a ji waɗannan muryoyin a cikin cutar ba. Me yasa hakan ya gaza? Shin ƙungiyar gaba ɗaya za ta mai da hankali kan jin daɗin jama'a ta ba da ƙarin yanke shawara masu ma'ana a lokutan rikici?
Ta yaya tasiri bayyananne da barazanar barazana ga ayyukan likita (kamar hana tallafin bincike ko soke rijistar likitocin likita) sun kasance cikin rufe masu suka a cikin al'ummomin kiwon lafiya da bincike?
Wadanne canje-canje a cikin tsarin rabon tallafin bincike na kiwon lafiya za a iya gabatar da su don ƙarfafa ƙirƙira a cikin binciken likitanci da ƙarin tattaunawa kan yadda za a inganta tsarin tsarin kiwon lafiya gabaɗaya? Misali, kudaden binciken likitanci na iya kasaftawa ba ta masu ciki ba amma na waje, kamar ƴan ƙasa da aka zaɓa ba da gangan ba ko ƙwararrun ƙasashen waje. Ƙungiyoyin musamman na kusa da Shugaban ƙasa za a iya ba su aikin yin tunani game da gyare-gyaren tsarin don tallafawa neman jin daɗin jama'a.
Wadanne matakan gyare-gyare ne za su iya kawo cikas ga yunƙurin buƙatu na musamman, irin su kamfanonin harhada magunguna, na cin hanci da rashawa da yin tasiri ga manyan jami'an kiwon lafiya? Shin za a iya canza tsarin nada shugabanni na ofis don kawo ƙarin bazuwar da 'yancin kai cikin wannan tsarin, misali ta hanyar samun manyan jami’an kiwon lafiya a nada su ta hanyar bazuwar ’yan kasa a cikin alƙalan alƙawari, ta yadda za a katse alaka tsakanin ‘yan siyasa da kudaden da aka ware domin kiwon lafiya? Za a iya biyan bukatun jama'a ta hanyar soke dokoki da ƙa'idodin da ke ba ƙungiyoyin masu bukata ta musamman zama kai tsaye a teburin da ake yanke shawara game da su?
Shin za a iya kafa tsarin sa ido na dimokuradiyya da ya fi wahala ga jam'iyyun siyasa ko masu bukatu na musamman su lalata? Zabi ɗaya a cikin wannan jijiya shine a kafa kwamiti na dindindin tare da memba mai jujjuya wanda ya ƙunshi ƴan ƙasa da aka zaɓa ba bisa ka'ida ba waɗanda ke da alhakin ci gaba da kimanta manufofi da sakamako a cikin tsarin kiwon lafiya. Hukumomin sa ido na yanzu, kamar Ofishin Sufeto Janar da Babban Ofishin Akanta, sun kasa gani ko bayyana matsalolin da manufofin Covid. Me yasa suka rasa wannan? Shin sabon tsarin duba na cikin gida ko wani rukunin bincike zai yi amfani? Mai yiwuwa wurin farawa zai zama binciken abin da ya faru da kwararar kuɗin da ke da alaƙa da Dokar Kulawa ta 2020.

3 (a) ii Canje-canje ga tsarin tsarin tattalin arziki

Matsakaicin masanin tattalin arziki na ilimi ba shi da horo a cikin shirya CBA don manufofin kiwon lafiya, kuma waɗanda suka yi ƙoƙarin irin waɗannan nazarce-nazarcen a lokutan Covid sukan yi watsi da ainihin fahimtar tarbiyyar su (duba Sashe na 2). Har ila yau, zamanin Covid ya bayyana rashin masanan tattalin arziki a ko dai a fannin ilimi ko kuma na jama'a waɗanda ke da niyyar yin tsayayya da tunanin rukuni kuma suna da horo da kulawa da jin daɗin jama'a da ake buƙata don ganowa da ƙididdige farashi da fa'idodin manufofi a wurare daban-daban. Wadannan matsalolin ba su da sauƙi a magance su, saboda duka biyu suna haifar da matakai na dogon lokaci.

Layukan bincike da hanyoyin gyara don la'akari:

Ta yaya za a iya inganta abubuwan ƙarfafawa a cikin fannonin ilimi da bincike a cikin tattalin arziki don samar da masu tunanin tattalin arziki waɗanda suke la'akari da dukan al'umma a cikin tarihin tarihi, maimakon ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun da a halin yanzu ke mamaye?
Wadanne nau'ikan masana tattalin arziki ya kamata a dauka tare da horar da su don yin aiki a sassa daban-daban na tsarin? Shin ’yan kasuwa ne ko na waje su zabi wadannan ma’aikata? Wanene ya kamata ya kimanta waɗanda suka ba da shawara mai kyau?
Ya kamata a buƙaci nau'ikan ƙwarewa na musamman don zama babban mai ba da shawara kan tattalin arziki, kamar ƙwarewar aikin gwamnati ko ƙwarewar gudanar da nazarin fa'ida-fa'ida na manyan manufofi?
Shin ya kamata a ba da shawarar masu ba da shawara kan tattalin arziki a bainar jama'a kuma ana iya danganta su? Shin ƙarin canje-canje don rage ƙarfin abubuwan ƙarfafawa, kamar neman masana tattalin arziki na ƙasashen waje ko samun 'yan ƙasa bazuwar nada masu ba da shawara kan tattalin arziki, zai yi amfani?
Shin ya kamata a fitar da jerin sunayen kuma a bayyana wa jama'a masana tattalin arzikin da suka gaza ko aiki da kyau a lokacin Covid? Shin ya kamata mummunan sakamako su fito daga 'ayyukan' duka sassan tattalin arziki da jami'o'i? Wanene irin wannan aikin zai faɗo, kuma wane bayani za su iya jawowa akai?
Shin ya kamata a tattara muryoyin tattalin arziki da aka sani sun yi magana a lokacin Covid don taimakawa ayyukan sake fasalin, tare da niyya da gangan na kawar da masu ciki da bukatu na musamman? Misali, ana iya buƙatar sa ido kan hanyoyin yin garambawul a cikin jami'o'i don haɗawa da aƙalla ɗaya daga farkon sa hannu na Babban Sanarwar Barrington.

3 (a) iii Zaɓuɓɓukan sasantawa na gwamnati don canje-canje ga kafofin watsa labarai

Layukan bincike da hanyoyin gyara don la'akari:

Menene ya haramta manufar Gyaran Farko na Kundin Tsarin Mulkin Amurka daga kasancewa a cikin kafofin watsa labaru, musamman akan manyan dandamali masu zaman kansu (Twitter, Facebook, Google, Amazon, TikTok, Reddit, da sauransu)? Wadanne sabbin dokoki ne za a iya bullo da su don magance matsaloli kamar su cece-kuce a kaikaice daga gwamnati da kuma kwarin gwiwa da gwamnatin ke yi kan kokarin tantancewar cibiyoyin yada labarai masu zaman kansu?
Akwai dokokin jigilar kayayyaki gama gari a cikin Amurka waɗanda za a iya amfani da su don tsara ƙima ta manyan dandamali masu zaman kansu. Manyan takardun da ke bayyana wannan alkiblar sake fasalin sun hada da Samfurin Sirri na Dimukradiyya (da Adam Candeub). Wani muhimmin abin koyi na doka shine kwanan nan saita a Ohio a cikin shari'ar da ake yi wa Google, kuma wani shine hukuncin da Sashe na Biyar ya yanke kwanan nan NetChoice vs Paxton.
Shin ya kamata a yi takamaiman bincike game da sa ido a lokacin Covid ta Big Tech da sauran kamfanoni / ƙungiyoyi masu zaman kansu? Ta yaya za a iya wakilci maslahar jama’a a irin wannan bincike ba tare da tasirin siyasar jam’iyya ba? Taron ƴan ƙasa zai zama zaɓi ɗaya.
Shin ya kamata a sami haƙƙin biyan diyya ga mutanen da kamfanoni masu zaman kansu suka sanya wa takunkumi a lokutan Covid akan dandamalin su, daidai da ƙimar masu sauraro da mutunci? Shin ya kamata a yi wani tsarin biyan diyya gabaɗaya ga waɗanda abin ya shafa, wanda ƙungiyoyi masu zaman kansu suka biya?
Shin ya kamata a yi bincike kan ko binciken da cibiyoyi masu zaman kansu ke gudanarwa a lokutan Covid wani nau'i ne na sakaci da / ko ba da shawarar likita mara kyau? Ana iya yin afuwar gabaɗaya ga waɗanda suka yi wannan katsalandan a madadin kafa tsarin diyya da manyan gyare-gyare.
Shin ya kamata a karfafa bambancin ra'ayi ta hanyar kafa kafofin watsa labarai da ke tallafawa jama'a musamman wadanda ke wakiltar ra'ayoyi daban-daban? Wanene zai yanke shawara kan abun ciki a waɗannan kantuna? Har ila yau, mai tsananin buri: shin za a iya tattara al'ummomin gida don samar da labarai da kuma taimakawa wajen tantance labaran da ake da su ga al'ummominsu, tare da yin daidai da ra'ayin cewa hakki ne na dimokuradiyya na hada kai da tantance labarai?
shin ya kamata a yi la'akari da wuraren watsa labarai mallakar masu zaman kansu a wani yanki na wuraren jama'a, don haka suna bin ka'idodin zamantakewa na jama'a? Idan haka ne, za a iya tara jama'a don su taka rawar gani wajen tsara ka'idojin abun ciki, kamar ta hanyar wakilan jama'a da aka nada a cikin kungiyoyin watsa labarai masu zaman kansu?
Ana iya kallon tashin hankali a farkon 2020 a matsayin yaduwa ta zuciya ta duniya da aka yaɗa ta hanyar kafofin watsa labarun da na gargajiya. Ta yaya hukumomin Amurka za su iya yin haɗin gwiwa da hukumomi a wasu ƙasashe don kawar da raƙuman motsin rai na gaba? Menene Amurka za ta iya yi ba tare da izini ba don guje wa tasirin raƙuman motsin rai daga ketare suna kutsawa cikin jama'ar Amurka ta kafofin watsa labarai?

3(a) iv Zaɓuɓɓukan sulhu na gwamnati don canje-canje zuwa abubuwan da ba a taɓa gani ba: Halaye, tsammanin, kamannin kai, da ra'ayoyi game da haɗari da mutuwa.

Layukan bincike da hanyoyin gyara don la'akari:

Shin ya kamata a yi tattaunawar jama'a ta ƙasa game da dangantakarmu da mutuwa, halayen haɗari, hukuma ta sirri tare da ikon jiha, kurakuran manya game da 'ya'yansu a lokutan Covid, da makamantan manyan batutuwa? Shin babban kwamitin sulhu wanda ya haɗa da na jama'a da na masu zaman kansu zai iya sauƙaƙe irin wannan muhawara? Shin ya kamata a jagoranci wannan tun daga tushe (watau a cikin unguwanni da ƙauyuka) amma a sauƙaƙe, ko kuma a yi irin salon shahara a cikin tattaunawa ta talabijin?
Ta yaya za a iya tinkarar babban lamari na aminci da gudanar da aiki? Cibiyoyi ta hanyar ci gaba, ta yaya daidaito da bukatun jama'a gabaɗaya za su sake farfadowa a matsayin manyan masu yin shawarwari masu alaƙa da haɗari, tare da maye gurbin buƙatar ganin 'yin wani abu' game da hauka na yau?
Shin ya kamata a yi canje-canje ga abin da shari'a ta ayyana a matsayin 'rashin kulawa' don nuna maslahar jama'a maimakon kawai wani ɗan ƙaramin sakamako?
Ta yaya cibiyoyin gwamnati da masu zaman kansu za su rage tasirin ayyukansu na bukatu na musamman da sarrafa hoto, ta yadda za su zama masu amana?

3 (b) Canje-canje ga sana'ar tattalin arziki a cikin makarantar

Rashin mayar da martani game da martanin Covid daga masana tattalin arziki da ke aiki a wajen gwamnati yana gayyatar tambayoyi game da abubuwan ƙarfafawa da ke fuskantar masana ilimi. Waɗannan abubuwan ƙarfafawa sun samo asali ne daga abubuwa da yawa, waɗanda suka haɗa da ƙwaƙƙwaran sana'o'i na malamai, yadda tsarin wallafe-wallafen ke aiki, ƙaddamar da aikin koyarwa da bincike, da kuma matakin da ake samun bambancin tunani a cikin makarantar. Canje-canje ga waɗannan abubuwan ƙarfafawa ba za su shafi ba kawai halayen malamai a cikin tattalin arziki ba, har ma da na malaman ilimi a wasu fannoni, inganta ikon su na taimakawa wajen magance manyan matsalolin manufofin zamantakewa.

3 (b) i Ƙarfafawar sana'a da tsarin bugawa

Ana samun lada ga malamai don bugawa a cikin 'manyan' mujallu waɗanda ke amfani da hanyoyin bitar takwarorinsu ta dogara da ƙungiyoyin editoci da alkalan wasa waɗanda kansu an zana su daga sahun malamai a cikin batutuwa iri ɗaya. Waɗannan “masu bita na takwarorinsu” da kansu suna da abubuwan ƙarfafawa don amincewa kawai waɗanda aka ƙaddamar da rubuce-rubucen da ke magana mai kyau ga binciken da ake yi na kansu da abokan aikinsu da mawallafan su. Wannan yana haifar da tsawon rabin rayuwa na ra'ayoyin da ake da su da kuma labarun kimiyya, da kuma babbar wahala wajen buga sabbin ra'ayoyi na gaske. Malaman ilimi da suka yi nasara a irin wannan yanayi su ne waɗanda suke shirye su “tsaye layi,” kasancewar sabbin abubuwa ne kawai da ƙari kuma ba da gaske suke ƙalubalantar matsayin da ke cikin takamaiman fagagen bincikensu ba. Wannan dabi'a ta bin koyarwar da aka yarda da ita na iya yin tasiri ga yarda da ikon malamai na kalubalantar koyaswar da aka yarda da su a wasu fannonin aikinsu, gami da cudanyarsu da gwamnati da kafafen yada labarai. Yana zabar masu tunani masu bin iko.

Yadda za a magance wannan matsalar, wacce ta yi fice sosai a zamanin Covid? An riga an yi ƙoƙari don maye gurbin ko maye gurbin tsarin bitar takwarorinsu na “rufe-ƙofa” tare da madadin “buɗaɗɗen kimiyya”, inda aka san duk sunayen ƴan wasan, ya saba ma ƙayyadaddun tsarin da aka makantar da bayanan alkalan daga marubuta (da kuma baya, a kalla a ka'idar). Amma duk da haka wannan kawai yana magance matsalar saitin cibiyoyin sadarwa na cikin rukuni da sarrafa labari a cikin fage. Mafi tsattsauran ra'ayi shine ɗaukar nauyin haifar da wasu makarantun tunani ta hanyar shirin tallafin gwamnati. Kowace shekara, gwamnati na iya fara ware ƙayyadaddun adadin kuɗi a kowace shekara don ƙayyadadden lokaci (ce, shekaru 10) ga ƙungiyar kimiyya ɗaya a cikin wani nau'i na musamman - tattalin arziki, ilimin halin dan Adam, kimiyyar lissafi - wanda ke wakiltar kuma yana da ikon haɓakawa isar da ƙarnuka na gaba na masana wata hanya dabam ta hanyar magana. Wannan “kudin iri,” wanda zai fi dacewa da alkalan alkalai na ’yan kasa maimakon ta “gwamnati” da gwamnati ta nada, za a yi amfani da su don tallafawa ƙirƙirar wasu makarantun tunani waɗanda za su iya ko ba za su iya tabbatar da kansu ba, amma suna wakiltar madadin wanda babban ra'ayi na batun dole ne ya yi takara yadda ya kamata.

3 (b) ii Gudanar da ayyukan ilimi

Jami'o'i a yau suna da yawa bureaucratized, tare da Lambobin ma'aikatan gudanarwa wani lokacin ma sun wuce lambobin ma'aikatan ilimi. Wannan yana haifar da babban nauyin gudanarwa a kan ma'aikata, ƙarfafa al'adu mai karfi kan tabbatar da bin doka maimakon aminta da malaman ilimi, da al'adar bin ka'idoji, kyamar haɗari, da kuma daidaita tsarin. Waɗannan ƙa'idodi na al'adu a cikin wuraren aikinsu na iya yin tasiri ga ayyukan masana a fannonin da suka wuce makarantar. Har ila yau, nauyin gudanarwa a kan malamai yana lalata ikon su na mayar da hankali kan manyan tambayoyi da kuma hulɗa tare da al'umma.

Ɗaya daga cikin hanyoyin magance wannan matsala ita ce komawa ga tsarin aikin da jami'ar ta kasance a baya, inda muryar malaman jami'a ta fi fice fiye da masu gudanarwa a cikin tsara manufofi game da koyarwa da bincike, kuma mafi yawan masu gudanarwa sun kasance a cikin gida maimakon a tsakiya, suna ba da goyon baya ga gida. hidimomin farko da jami'a ke bayarwa (koyarwa da bincike) maimakon zama wani ɓangare na fiefdoms na gudanarwa. Gwamnatoci za su iya karfafa hakan a cibiyoyin da jihohi ke ba da tallafi ta hanyar amfani da ikonsu don hana kudade daga jami'o'in da ma'aikatan gudanarwar su ko dai sun yi yawa, sun yi yawa sosai, ko kuma suna da yawa, ko kuma inda muryoyin malamai ba su ne ke jagorantar yanke shawara game da koyarwa na cikin gida ba. da manufofin bincike.

3 (b) iii Bambancin tunani

Jami'o'in yau galibi suna ɗaukar matsayi na hukuma akan madadin manufofin jama'a, aƙidar akida, tambayoyin zamantakewa, ko tambayoyin siyasa. Idan har ra’ayin malami a kan wasu tambayoyi na zamantakewa, tattalin arziki, ko siyasa bai dace da na shugabannin jami’o’insa ba, to ba zai ji dadin fadin ra’ayinsa ba. Rukunin “adalci da bambance-bambancen da ake gani akai-akai a cikin jami’o’i sun yarda da gaskiyar cewa bambancin tunani ba kamar yadda ake raya shi a cikin jami’o’i a yau a matsayin bambancin ainihi ba. Wannan yana haifar da jinkirin masana ilimi tare da ra'ayoyin da suka bambanta daga "layin da aka yarda" don watsa waɗannan ra'ayoyin, ko a cikin makarantar ko kuma bayansa.

Tambayar yadda za a warware kame jami'o'i da manyan jami'o'i da tasirin akida za su iya dauka daga masu jami'o'in: jama'a ga cibiyoyin gwamnati, da masu daukar nauyin cibiyoyi masu zaman kansu. Layukan binciken da suka dace na jami'o'i sun yi kama da waɗanda aka zayyana a sama na gwamnati.

3(c) Misalai mafi kyawun ayyuka na cikin gida da na ketare

Saboda ikon mallakar ƙasa da tsarin tarayya na Amurka, lokacin Covid ya ba da misalan abubuwan da za a iya cimmawa a ƙarƙashin wasu yanayi na siyasa. Wadanne misalai mafi kyawun aiki da ke ba da shawarar kansu daga ciki da wajen Amurka?

3 (c) i South Dakota da Florida

A cikin Amurka, jihohi biyu sun yi fice kamar yadda suka bi manyan tsare-tsaren cutar sankara na 2020 a cikin sarrafa Covid, kuma ta haka ne ke nisantar yawancin cutarwar da ke haifar da hani mai yawa: South Dakota da Florida.

Dakota ta Kudu ta fi bin daidaitattun tsare-tsaren sarrafa cutar sankara kuma ba ta sanya dokar hana fita ba. Scott Atlas ya rubuta a cikin littafinsa na 2021, "Gwamnan South Dakota Kristi Noem… shine gwamna daya tilo da bai bukaci kowane kasuwanci ya rufe ba." Iyakar abin da ke tattare da tsarin haɗari shine rufe makaranta. ⁸ Wikipedia ya dauki martaninta kamar haka:

A ranar 13 ga Maris, 2020, Gwamna Kristi Noem ya ayyana dokar ta-baci. An rufe makarantu tun daga ranar 16 ga Maris. An ba da umarnin zartarwa don ƙarfafa nisantar da jama'a, aiki mai nisa, da bin ka'idar CDC na rufe wuraren da aka rufe ga mutane 10 a lokaci guda. A ranar 6 ga Afrilu, Noem ya umarci mazauna yankunan Lincoln da Minnehaha masu rauni waɗanda shekaru 65 ko sama da su ko kuma suna da yanayin rashin lafiya da su zauna a gida har sai an ƙara sanarwa. An ɗaga dokar a ranar 11 ga Mayu.

Ya bambanta da yawancin jihohin (amma daidai da sauran yankunan karkara, jihohin da Republican ke jagoranta irin su Nebraska), Gwamna Noem ya ƙi sanya dokar zama a gida a duk faɗin jihar, bayan da ya yi iƙirarin cewa “mutane da kansu ke da alhakin hakan. tsaronsu,” da kuma cewa tana son ta mutunta haƙƙoƙinsu na “yin amfani da haƙƙinsu na yin aiki, yin ibada da yin wasa. Ko kuma in zauna a gida."

⁸ Koyaya, zuwa ranar 28 ga Yuli, 2020, sashen ilimi na jihar Dakota ta Kudu ya ba da jagora wanda ke ba da hankali ga gundumomin gida don saita shirye-shiryen sake farawa tare da tuntuɓar jami'an kiwon lafiya na gida. Yana ba da shawarar tsare-tsare masu sassauƙa waɗanda ke ba da fifiko ga koyarwar fuska da fuska.

Kalamanta na jama'a ya nuna cewa Noem ya jure wa matakan ƙuntatawa daga manufofin da suka sa aka kafa ƙasar Amurka:

“Na yi rantsuwa a lokacin da nake Majalisa, a fili na kiyaye kundin tsarin mulkin Amurka. Na yi imani da ’yancinmu da ’yancinmu… Abin da na gani a duk faɗin ƙasar shine mutane da yawa sun ba da ’yancinsu don kawai ɗan tsaro. Kuma ba sai na yi hakan ba. ... Idan shugaba zai yi yawa a lokacin rikici, ta haka ne za mu rasa kasarmu. Don haka na ji kamar dole ne in yi amfani da kowace dama don yin magana game da dalilin da ya sa muke tafiyar da al'amura, muna yanke shawara bisa kimiyya da gaskiya kuma mu tabbatar da cewa ba za mu bar motsin rai ya mamaye lamarin ba."

Ko da akan Covid kawai, sakamakon da aka samu a South Dakota suna magana da ƙarfi fiye da kalmomi. Makwabciyar jihar North Dakota, wacce ke da matsanancin kulle-kulle, tana da adadin mutuwar Covid sama da South Dakota.

**Hoto xx:** Kwatanta mutuwar Covid a North Dakota (tare da kulle-kulle) da South Dakota (ba tare da kulle-kulle ba), Source: Worldometer, Oktoba 2021

David Henderson bita na littafin Scott Atlas na 2021 Rahoton Atlas ya ruwaito cewa bayan ya fara magana a bainar jama'a game da damuwarsa game da kulle-kullen (misali, labarinsa na 25 ga Mayu 2020 a cikin The Hill), ya sami kira "daga Gwamna Ron DeSantis na Florida, wanda, kamar yawancin gwamnonin Amurka, ya sanya dokar hana fita. DeSantis, duk da haka, ya fara karanta littattafan kuma ya kammala cewa abin da ya fara yi kuskure ne. Ya yi wa Atlas jerin tambayoyi na fom, “Ga fahimtata; daidai ne?" Kuma ga kusan kowace tambaya, in ji Atlas, amsar eh. Wataƙila ba kwatsam ba, DeSantis shine babban gwamna na farko da ya kawo ƙarshen kulle-kullen. " ⁹ Florida an sanya odar zama-a-gida a duk jihar akan 1 ga Afrilu 2020, da kuma 1 ga Satumba, 2020, da yawa daga cikin an sassauta hani. Zuwa 25 ga Satumba 2020 kusan duk hani a Florida aka daga.

⁹ Wadannan tattaunawa sun hada da a ranar 18 ga Maris, 2021 wanda Dr. Scott Atlas, Farfesa Sunetra Gupta, Dr. Jay Bhattacharya da Dr. Martin Kulldorff suka halarta.

Kamar dai a yawancin jihohin Amurka, a duka Kudancin Dakota da Florida ya bayyana cewa cibiyoyin kiwon lafiyar jama'a sun lalace yayin da manyan masu yanke shawara suka mika wuya ga tunanin rukuni. Babu wata hujja da ta nuna cewa gwamnonin jihohin biyu sun sami shawarwari daban-daban daga hukumomin kiwon lafiyar jama'a na kansu. Madadin haka, waɗannan jahohin sun kasance ƙarƙashin manyan shugabanni waɗanda ke son rage kutsawa mara amfani daga gwamnati cikin rayuwar 'yan ƙasa, don haka waɗanda suka nemi shawarar madadin gwamnati daga wajen gwamnati (a cikin yanayin DeSantis), da / ko kan nasu zaɓi kaɗan. manufofin cin zarafi (a cikin yanayin Noem). DeSantis ya bijire wa nasa masu ba da shawara kuma ya nemi masu tunani iri ɗaya a cikin nau'ikan iri ɗaya. Ta wannan ma'ana, tsarin DeSantis yana da haɗari.

Duk da yake ƙaramin mataki ne kawai, isa wajen tsarin mulki na jiha don ɗaukar shawarwari daga masana masu zaman kansu masu zaman kansu waɗanda ke wakiltar ra'ayoyin ƙwararru da yawa za a iya kafa su a matsayin wani ɓangare na tsarin da doka ta tanada, ko a matakin jiha ko na tarayya, kafin aiwatar da manufofin da za su kasance. matukar kawo cikas ga rayuwar 'yan kasa.

3 (c) ii Japan da Ivermectin

Magungunan farko masu arha game da Covid sun kasance abin izgili da izgili a cikin Amurka sama da shekara guda, musamman ivermectin da Zelenko yarjejeniya (haɗin magunguna masu arha). Tambayar ba ita ce ko suna da tasiri ba, amma ko an yarda da su kwata-kwata. Yayin da aka kwatanta shi da haɗari da rashin amfani a cikin Amurka da kuma a mafi yawan Turai da Ostiraliya, ivermectin an ba da shawarar a wasu ƙasashe da yawa ciki har da Indiya, sau da yawa a hade da zinc, bitamin D, da sauran samfurori masu arha da aka yi amfani da su shekaru da yawa.

Shari'ar koyarwa ita ce Japan, wacce ke da ingantacciyar hanyar da ta dogara da shaida game da lafiyar jama'a kuma tana da ɗan haske game da hane-hane na Covid. Yayin da ake yin taka tsantsan kar a tallata ivermectin a matsayin ingantaccen magani na gabaɗaya ga Covid, saboda shari'ar ba ta bayyana cewa hakan yana da garantin ba, hukumomin kiwon lafiya ba su sanya takunkumi ga likitocin da ke ba da maganin ba, ko kan daidaikun mutane masu siya da amfani da shi. Wannan hanya ta ba masu bincike na gida damar bincika ko maganin yana yin bambanci sosai, yin watsi da kamfen ɗin bayanai a wasu ƙasashe.

Darasin shi ne, mai yiyuwa ne kasa mai arziki ta daina wajabta ko hana wasu magunguna na musamman idan an kamu da wata sabuwar cuta, tare da barin jiyya da magunguna da yawa da majinyata daban-daban za su gwada matukar ba a samu wasu kwakkwarar alamun cutarwa ba. Wannan hanya tana baiwa ƙasa damar ganowa kanta abin da ke aiki cikin lokaci.

3 (c) iii Sweden da Anders Tegnell

A cikin Yammacin duniya, Sweden ta kasance ƙasa mai karewa kan tsauraran matakan Covid, ba ta kafa manyan makarantu ko tilasta nisantar da jama'a a duk lokacin bala'in ba, galibi tana iyakance kanta ga shawarwari maimakon umarni, da ci gaba da sabunta shawarar lafiyarta. Lokacin da ba a sami karuwa mai yawa a cikin lamuran Sweden da mace-mace a tsakiyar 2020, ya bayyana a fili ga ƙasashe makwabta da masu sa ido da yawa masu zaman kansu cewa kulle-kulle ba su da tasiri kuma ƙarancin ɗanniya na iya ba da sakamako mai kama da na Covid, a cikin sabani kai tsaye ga mummunan hasashen. wanda aka yi a farkon 2020.

Masanin ilimin cututtuka na jihar Sweden Anders Tegnell ya bi tsarin da aka tsara a cikin shirye-shiryen cutar sankara a duk duniya da kuma 2019 WHO jagororin. Da Jagororin CDC na Turai Fabrairu 2020 don Covid bai ma ambaci kulle-kulle ba, da yawa ya ba da shawarar su. The Sabuntawar ECDC na Satumba 2020 na jagororin sa na Fabrairu 2020 ya ambaci cewa wasu ƙasashe sun sanya dokar hana fita amma sun lura cewa babu wata shaida ta tasirin su. Science wanda aka ruwaito a ranar 6 ga Oktoba 2020: "Tegnell ya yi ta maimaitawa cewa dabarun Yaren mutanen Sweden suna daukar cikakkiyar ra'ayi game da lafiyar jama'a, da nufin daidaita hadarin kwayar cutar tare da lalacewa daga matakan kariya kamar makarantu da aka rufe. Manufar ita ce a kare tsofaffi da sauran kungiyoyin masu hadarin gaske yayin da ake rage yaduwar kwayar cutar don guje wa cikar asibitoci. "

A cikin hirarraki da rubuce-rubuce da yawa a cikin shekarar 2020, Tegnell ya bi ka'idodin kula da cutar sankara, yayin da ya amince da kurakuran farko na rashin ba da kariya ga waɗanda ke cikin cibiyoyin kula da tsofaffi. ¹⁰ Ya saba da aikin Donald Henderson, kamar yadda aka nuna a cikin nasa cikakken hira da Nature a ranar 21 ga Afrilu 2020: "Rufe iyakoki, a ganina, abin dariya ne, saboda COVID-19 yana cikin kowace ƙasar Turai yanzu." A ranar 24 ga Yuni, 2020, Tegnell yayi tsokaci game da manufofin da ake aiwatarwa a duniya: "Kamar dai duniya ta yi hauka, kuma an manta da duk abin da muka tattauna."

¹⁰ wannan video ya taƙaita wasu darussa da ya koya wa duniya kan tushen kiwon lafiyar jama'a.

Yayin da adadin wadanda suka mutu sanadiyar mutuwar Covid-XNUMX a Sweden ya yi sama da na makwabta, bincike na bayanan Oxford Blavatnik ya nuna cewa wadannan kasashe makwabta suna da tsare-tsare masu kama da juna idan aka kwatanta da sauran kasashen Turai. Jon Miltimore ya lura "Tsarin martanin gwamnatin Sweden bai kai 50 ba, wanda ya kai kusan 46 daga ƙarshen Afrilu zuwa farkon Yuni [2020]." A lokaci guda, "Tsarin kulle-kullen Norway bai kai 40 ba tun farkon Yuni [2020], kuma ya faɗi har zuwa 28.7 a cikin Satumba da Oktoba. Tsare-tsare na kulle-kulle na Finland ya bi irin wannan tsari, yana iyo kusan tsakiyar zuwa ƙananan 30s na yawancin rabin na biyu na shekara, kafin ya koma zuwa 41 a kusa da Halloween. "

Babban dalili na zaɓin manufofin Covid na Sweden shine alhakin manufofin an ba da shi ga wata cibiya mai zaman kanta maimakon manyan 'yan siyasa. Wannan siffa ce ta gaba ɗaya na tsarin mulkin Sweden, wanda ke haifar da cibiyoyi masu zaman kansu masu zaman kansu waɗanda ma'aikatansu ke ganin aikinsu ne na yin abin da ya fi dacewa ga jama'a. Ana iya bincika matakin da za a iya jigilar irin wannan 'yancin kai zuwa Amurka a fannoni daban-daban na lafiyar jama'a. Babbar tambaya ga Amurka ita ce yadda za ta hana kamawa da kuma ci gaba da nada daraktoci masu zaman kansu masu ra'ayin jama'a.

3(c) iv Gafara daga hukumomin lafiya na Norway

Kasashe da yawa sun shiga cikin kulle-kulle da wuri ba tare da wata hujjar cewa za su yi aiki ba (misali, ta hanyar gwaji da bazuwar). Denmark ta kasance irin wannan farkon mai ɗaukar nauyi, tana kullewa tun kafin Amurka, a ranar 13 ga Maris 2020. Norway ta bi sahun bayan 'yan kwanaki. Koyaya, kasashen biyu sun fara bin manufofin Sweden bayan bazara na 2020 lokacin da ya bayyana a gare su cewa manufofinsu na farko sun wuce gona da iri.

A karshen watan Mayu 2020, manyan manazarta da masu yanke shawara a cikin tsarin kiwon lafiyar gwamnatin Norway sun kimanta abin da ya faru a cikin watanni biyu da suka gabata kuma ya zo ga ƙarshe cewa ba a buƙatar kulle-kulle kuma ya haifar da lalacewa mara amfani. Wannan ya sa ya zama da wahala daga baya aiwatar da wasu matakai masu lahani, kamar rufe makarantu da tilasta nisantar da jama'a. Yayin da masu yanke shawara a cikin ofishin kula da lafiyar Amurka ba za su yarda su amince da kuskure kamar yadda Norwegians suka yi ba, darasi ga Amurka shi ne cewa neman masu kimantawa masu zaman kansu su yanke nasu hukunci kan manufofi ta hanyar birgima, suna isar da binciken su akai-akai ga jama'a. na iya zama ingantacciyar hanyar kawar da matsananciyar manufofin manufofin.

3(c) v Binciken manufofin Covid

Kasashe da yawa a ketare sun fara gudanar da binciken manufofin Covid. Misali, mai fadi-fadi Binciken jama'a na Burtaniya a halin yanzu ƴan aristocrats masu zaman kansu ne ke jagoranta; a Binciken manufofin Covid A halin yanzu ƙungiyar agaji ta Ostiraliya ke jagoranta; ¹¹ da Sweden riga ya shirya bita na yadda suke tafiyar da Covid a tsakiyar 2020, kuma yanzu kammala wancan bita.

¹¹ Gidauniyar Minderoo Foundation, da Paul Ramsay Foundation, da John da Myriam Wylie Foundation ne ke ba da tallafin bitar manufofin Covid na Ostiraliya, kuma an ba su kwangila ga ƙungiyar tuntuɓar da ake kira e61. Har yanzu ba mu sani ba ko wannan babban bita ne ko farar fata da gangan.

Kamar yadda aka ba da izinin amincewar masana masu zaman kansu kafin aiwatar da manufofin kawo cikas, gwamnatocin Amurka za su iya shigo da ƙwararrun masu zaman kansu na ƙasa da ƙasa don kimanta martaninmu na Covid, bin samfuran da aka bayar a cikin tambayoyin da aka ambata a sama. Za a iya bullo da tsarin alƙalan siyasa da aka ba da izini na ƙasa da ƙasa kwatankwacin abin da ake amfani da shi a wasanni na duniya.

3 (d) Ƙananan masu tilastawa

Yawancin shaidar cin zalin mutum ɗaya yana cikin tarihin Twitter, Facebook, tsarin imel, da sauran hanyoyin takarda na dijital. Wannan yana buɗe duka dama da haɗari. Ta yaya za a yi amfani da shaida game da sassan da ɗaiɗaikun ƴan wasan kwaikwayo ke takawa wajen cin zarafi, kawar da rashin amincewa, da shirya danniya da tantancewa don amfanin jama'a - alal misali, wajen ƙirƙira sabbin cibiyoyi ko wajen aiwatar da tsarin sulhu?

3 (e) Tasirin manufofin Covid akan sakamako a wasu ƙasashe

Duk da yake ya wuce iyakar wannan takarda don tattaunawa dalla-dalla, yawancin ƙasashe matalauta sun bi misalin Amurka, galibi suna cutar da su. Kamar yadda wata takarda ta kwanan nan da ke nuna mutuwar yara miliyan 5 a cikin 2020 an lura, kulle wani gungun jama'a inda mutane suka gagara cin abinci kafin Covid yana daidai da hukuncin kisa. Yawancin sauran rikice-rikice kai tsaye ko a kaikaice da ke da alaƙa da zaɓi na ƙasashen Yamma, gami da wargajewar shirye-shiryen rigakafin rigakafi na wasu cututtuka, karkatar da kuɗi don binciken lafiya zuwa wasu cututtuka, da shingen kasuwanci wanda ya talauta abokan cinikin Amurka. Kungiyar Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙasa rubuta yawancin waɗannan tasirin. Idan akwai nufin siyasa don yin la'akari da lalacewar da ba Amurkawa ba, za a iya bincikar tasirin farfagandar cikin gida da manufofin Amurka. Ana iya yin la'akari da uzuri na ƙasa da aka bayar ga waɗanda abin ya shafa a ƙasashen waje.

3(f) Takaitattun manufofi da cibiyoyi na tattalin arziki

A lokacin Covid, gwamnati da takamaiman cibiyoyi ne suka yi zaɓin tattalin arziki da yawa. Tarayyar Reserve da gaske buga aƙalla Dala tiriliyan 4 a matsayin siyan bashin gwamnati da sauran matakan. An ba da umarnin rufe kasuwancin tilas a matakin tarayya da na kananan hukumomi. A kowane hali, manyan layukan tambaya suna aiki:

Wanene a zahiri ya yanke ko yake da alhakin yanke shawara mai mahimmanci, kamar bambanci tsakanin mahimman ayyuka da mahimmanci, masu haɗin gwiwar Covid-Covid ko kuma waɗanda ba su yarda da Covid-XNUMX da kasuwanci ba, da kuma ba da umarnin allurar rigakafin kwangilar tarayya? Shin waɗannan hukunce-hukuncen sun sabawa doka, kuma a kan wane tushe aka yanke su?
An yi la'akari da farashi da fa'idojin manyan manufofin gwamnati na tattalin arziki? Wanene ya kamata ya yi la'akari da su, kuma me ya fito daga shawarwarin da suka yi, ko me ya sa tattaunawar ba ta faru ba? Wanene ke da alhakin duk wani gazawar?
Menene ainihin manufofin manufofin manyan manufofin tattalin arziki, kamar buga tiriliyoyin daloli? Shin hanyoyin aiwatarwa (misali, siyan lamunin tarayya) shine mafi dacewa zaɓi tsakanin hanyoyin da ake da su, kamar haɓakawa kai tsaye ga gidaje?
Ta yaya ake nada mukamai a manyan cibiyoyin da ke cikin manyan shawarwarin tattalin arziki, kuma menene hadarin kamawa ta hanyar bukatun musamman na wadanda aka nada a wadannan mukamai? Ina tsofaffin shugabanni da daraktoci suke zuwa da zarar sun bar cibiyoyin, kuma daga ina sababbi suke fitowa?
Shin manyan masana tattalin arziki sun shiga cikin amincewa da manyan shawarwarin manufofin tattalin arziki na Amurka a cikin zamanin Covid suna sane da tasirin waɗancan shawarar ga jama'a, kuma an horar da su wajen yin nazarin fa'ida?

KARIN MAGANA

Articles:

Berman, Emily (2020). "Ayyukan da Gwamnatin Jiha da Gwamnatin Tarayya ke takawa a cikin Annobar." in Jaridar National Security Law & Policy, Vol. 11:61, COVID-19 na musamman, batu, https://bit.ly/3wSBgiE.

Fineberg, Harvey (2014). "Tsarin Cututtuka da Amsa - Darussan daga Cutar H1N1 na 2009." New England Journal of Medicine. 370: 1335-1342 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1208802

Frijters, P., Clark, AE, Krekel, C., da Layard, R. (2020), "Zaɓi mai farin ciki: jin daɗi a matsayin burin gwamnati." Manufofin Jama'a na Halaye.

Herby, Jonas, et al (2022) "Bita na Adabi da Meta-Analysis na Tasirin Makulli akan Mutuwar Covid-19." SAE/No.200/Janairu 2022.

Senger, Michael P. (2020). "Kamfen ɗin farfagandar kulle-kullen kulle-kullen China na duniya." in Tablet, 16 ga Satumba, 2020. https://bit.ly/3yS93eD

Littattafai:

Atlas, Scott (2021). Annoba A Gidanmu: Yaki na a Fadar White House don Dakatar da COVID daga Ruguza Amurka. Littattafan Bombardier, Disamba.

Engelbrecht, Torsten da Claus Kohnlein (2007), Yadda Masana'antar Likita ke Ci gaba da Ƙirƙirar Annoba, Suna Samun Ribar Biliyoyin Dalar Amurka A Kuɗin Mu.

Frijters, P. Foster, G., da Baker, M. (2021). Babban Tsoro na Covid: Me ya faru, me yasa, da abin da za a yi na gaba. Austin, TX: Cibiyar Brownstone, Satumba.
Frijters, P., & Krekel, C. (2021). Littafin Jagora don Tsara Manufofin Lafiya: Tarihi, Ka'idar, Aunawa, Aiwatarwa, da Misalai. Oxford University Press, 433 shafuka.

~ Gigi Foster, Jami'ar New South Wales
Paul Frijters, Makarantar Tattalin Arziki ta London
Agusta 2022

Shiga cikin tattaunawar:

An buga ƙarƙashin a Commonirƙirar Commonabi'a Mai Creativeayatarwa 4.0 Licenseasashen Duniya
Don sake bugawa, da fatan za a saita hanyar haɗin yanar gizo zuwa asali Cibiyar Brownstone Labari da Marubuci.

Authors

Gigi Foster

Gigi Foster, Babban Malami a Cibiyar Brownstone, Farfesa ne a fannin Tattalin Arziki a Jami'ar New South Wales, Australia. Binciken ta ya shafi fannoni daban-daban da suka hada da ilimi, tasirin zamantakewa, cin hanci da rashawa, gwaje-gwajen dakin gwaje-gwaje, amfani da lokaci, tattalin arziki, da manufofin Ostiraliya. Ita ce mawallafin marubucin Babban tashin hankali na Covid.

Duba dukkan posts
Paul Frijters

Paul Frijters, Babban Malami a Cibiyar Brownstone, Farfesa ne na Harkokin Tattalin Arziki Lafiya a Sashen Harkokin Siyasa a Makarantar Tattalin Arziki ta London, Birtaniya. Ya ƙware a cikin micro-econometrics, wanda ya haɗa da aiki, farin ciki, da tattalin arzikin kiwon lafiya Co-marubucin Babban tashin hankali na Covid.

Duba dukkan posts

Gabatarwa da Takaitaccen Bayani

Matsayi da nauyi a cikin gwamnati

Matsayin tattalin arziki

Farashin da fa'idodi

Darussa na gaba

PART 1 Amsar Covid-XNUMX ta Amurka: Layin bincike

1 (a) Menene ya kamata ya faru?

1 (a) i Tsare-tsaren ci gaba: Ayyukan gwamnati

1 (a) ii Manufofin hukumomi don kula da cututtuka

Shirin gwamnatin Amurka na annoba

1 (a) iii Takaitaccen abin da yakamata ya faru bisa ga tsari da tsare-tsare kafin 2020

1 (a) iv Gudanar da cututtukan da suka gabata

1 (b) Menene ainihin ya faru?

1 (b) i Takaitaccen lokacin abubuwan da suka faru da manyan yanke shawara da aka yanke yayin zamanin Covid

1 (b) ii Farkon kimantawa na martanin manufofin Covid na Amurka

1 (b) iii mahallin shari'a

1 (b) iv Canje-canje ga kiwon lafiya da zamantakewar tattalin arziki: Layukan bincike

1 (c) Muryar kungiyoyi a wajen gwamnati

1 (c) i Masana tattalin arzikin Amurka da Turai

1(c) ii Masana tattalin arziki a wajen Amurka da Turai

1 (c) iii Matsayin "ƙananan masu tilastawa" akan (social media) da kuma cikin al'ummomi

KASHI NA 2 Tasirin manufofin da aka yi: Layin bincike.

2 (a) Menene ya fi muhimmanci?

2 (b) Abubuwan da ba su dace ba

2(c) Kimanin girman ƙimar manufofin Covid da fa'idodi

2(c) Ina farashi zai zama mafi girma ko ƙasa a Amurka?

Cin zarafin matasa da kashe-kashen kai

Sakamakon shiga aikin karfi

Bashin gwamnati da buga kudi

Dindin haihuwa

Ƙididdiga masu yawa na mutuwa

Lafiyar kwakwalwa da lafiyar Amurka sun ragu

2(c) ii fa'idodin manufofin Covid?

2 (d) Lalacewar abubuwan da ba a taɓa gani ba

2 (e) Hanyar gyara lalacewa

SASHE NA 3 Matakai na gaba ga cibiyoyin gwamnati, dokoki, da ka'idoji: Layukan bincike

3 (a) Canje-canje a cikin aikin gwamnati

3 (a) i Canje-canje ga tsarin kula da lafiya

3 (a) ii Canje-canje ga tsarin tsarin tattalin arziki

3 (a) iii Zaɓuɓɓukan sasantawa na gwamnati don canje-canje ga kafofin watsa labarai

3(a) iv Zaɓuɓɓukan sulhu na gwamnati don canje-canje zuwa abubuwan da ba a taɓa gani ba: Halaye, tsammanin, kamannin kai, da ra'ayoyi game da haɗari da mutuwa.

3 (b) Canje-canje ga sana'ar tattalin arziki a cikin makarantar

3 (b) i Ƙarfafawar sana'a da tsarin bugawa

3 (b) ii Gudanar da ayyukan ilimi

3 (b) iii Bambancin tunani

3(c) Misalai mafi kyawun ayyuka na cikin gida da na ketare

3 (c) i South Dakota da Florida

3 (c) ii Japan da Ivermectin

3 (c) iii Sweden da Anders Tegnell

3(c) iv Gafara daga hukumomin lafiya na Norway

3(c) v Binciken manufofin Covid

3 (d) Ƙananan masu tilastawa

3 (e) Tasirin manufofin Covid akan sakamako a wasu ƙasashe

3(f) Takaitattun manufofi da cibiyoyi na tattalin arziki

KARIN MAGANA

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