a cikin wata baya labarin, Na bayyana dalilin da yasa Emily Oster's afuwa kira ga kulle-kulle, abin rufe fuska da masu kishin rigakafi ya tayar da fushi mai zafi.
Hoto na 1 (Madogararsa: fahimtar tip, Nuwamba 14, 2022).
Kuri'ar jin ra'ayin jama'a ta I&I/TIPP da aka gudanar a ranar 2-4 ga Nuwamba ta sami 39-35 mafi rinjaye na adawa da afuwa (Hoto na 1), kuma mafi girman ra'ayi ya kasance mara kyau ta hanyar rataye 21-12. Yayin da 'yan Democrat suka goyi bayan afuwar kashi 48-30, 'yan Republican da masu zaman kansu sun yi adawa da kashi 49-27. Taimakon afuwa ya ragu sosai da shekaru, daga kashi 52 cikin 25 tsakanin masu shekaru 44-17 zuwa kashi 65 cikin XNUMX a tsakanin XNUMX zuwa sama (alummata na). Yana da ban sha'awa, rabuwar shekaru.
Wadanda aka zalunta da rashin tausayi, rashin tausayin lafiyar jama'a da cin zarafi na tilastawa suna da adalci. Amma wane irin adalci ne? Yana iya zama taimako don duba misalai daga ka'ida da aikin shari'ar laifuka na duniya. Hankalin adalci da adalci da daidaito ya yi katutu a cikin dan Adam. Gyara hakan. Hakanan yana da zurfi a cikin wasu nau'ikan dabbobi. A cikin shahararrun gwaje-gwajen adalci da masanin ilimin farko Frans de Waal ya yi, an horar da birai capuchin don cinikin tsakuwa don yankan kokwamba. Lokacin da biri da ke cikin kejin da ke kusa da shi ya sami kyautar inabi mafi daraja, na farko ya jefar da 'ladan' kokwamba daga cikin kejin cikin fushi. Bayan haka, ko biri na biyu ya ki karbar inabi har sai da abokinsa ma ya samu irin wannan ladan. Wannan kashi na cikakken jawabin TED na de Waal a cikin 2011 an duba shi sau miliyan 22, 243,000 sun so kuma fiye da 15,000 sun yi sharhi. The cikakken magana yana da ra'ayoyi kusan miliyan 5.5.
Ana bayyana ra'ayin adalci a cikin ƙa'idodi na gama kai kuma, a gaba ɗaya, cikin dokoki. Idan babban ra'ayi shi ne cewa doka galibi ta dace da ra'ayi na gaskiya da adalci, rashin jin daɗi ba zai haifar da barazana ga tsarin doka ba. Amma idan akasin fahimta ta tabbata, kuma aka ga doka ta yi tafiya a kan wani yunƙuri na adalci, to tsarin doka - da tsarin al'umma da aka kafa bisa doka - za su zama abin kunya da rugujewa a karkashin tsarin mulki. nauyin shege.
Hadarin da muke gudu kenan. An kama “masu laifi”, an daure su, an ci tarar su, an yi musu muguwar kasa, kuma an harba harsashin roba a kansu tare da daskare kadarorin su. Idan waɗanda ke da alhakin waɗannan ayyukan na laifi ba su fuskanci sakamakon shari'a ba, shin bangaskiya ga bin doka da tsarin shari'a za su tsira ba tare da lahani ba?
Adalci an yi kuma an ga ayi
Yana da kyau a kawo hujjoji guda uku game da alakar da ke tsakanin adalci da ake yi (bangaren shari’a), da kuma ganin an yi (bangaren siyasa):
- Ana iya yin adalci, amma kada a ga an yi;
- Akasin haka, ana iya ganin an yi adalci, amma ba za a yi ba.
- A ƙarshe, ana iya ganin ba a yi adalci ba.
Kiraye-kirayen yin afuwa ba tare da yin la'akari ba suna fuskantar sakamako na uku, wanda shine dalilin da ya sa kiran Oster ya haifar da koma baya daga bangarori da yawa.
Yanayin shari'ar laifuka na kasa da kasa ya canza sosai cikin shekaru talatin da suka gabata. A shekara ta 1992, da azzalumai sun kasance da kwarin guiwa na tabbacin rashin hukunta su kan kisan gillar da aka yi wa mutanensu a cikin iyakokinsu. A yau, babu tabbacin gurfanar da shi a gaban kotu da kuma yin la'akari. Amma babu wani shugaban dattijai daya da zai iya amincewa da tserewa shari'ar kasa da kasa har abada: tabbacin rashin hukunta shi ya tafi.
Kotunan laifuka ta kasa da kasa na shekarun 1990 a Ruwanda da tsohuwar Yugoslavia, da aka kafa don yin shari'ar iyakacin adadin mutane don ayyuka da yankuna na musamman, sun taimaka wajen samar da fata da adalci ga wasu wadanda abin ya shafa, don yaki da rashin hukunta wasu masu aikata laifuka da kuma wadatar da ilimin shari'a. Dokar jin kai ta duniya (IHL). Amma sun kasance masu tsada kuma suna cin lokaci kuma sun ba da gudummawa kaɗan don ci gaba mai dorewa don gudanar da adalci.
Daurewar Kotun Hukunta Manyan Laifuka ta Duniya, da kafa hujja da hukunce-hukuncen duniya, masu fafutuka suna fatan, za su ginu a kan kotunan wucin gadi, da ba da damar kubuta daga zaluncin al'umma, da kuma rage hasashe na zaben adalci.
Matsakaici biyu
Duk da wasu nasarorin da aka samu, fatan da kotun ta ICC ke da shi a ƙirƙira ya kasance mafi yawa ba a samu ba. Shirin shari'ar laifuka na kasa da kasa, wanda ke nufin kare mutane masu rauni daga azzaluman shugabannin kasa, an juyar da shi zuwa wani kayan aiki na masu karfi a kan kasashe masu rauni.
Yiwuwar jami'an manyan kasashe da ke da alhakin keta laifukan IHL ya yi zagon kasa ta hanyar danganta kotun ta ICC da kwamitin sulhu na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya wanda kasashe biyar masu rike da madafun iko suka mamaye. Wannan ya sa Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta zama mara karfi a kan zaluncin Vladimir Putin a Ukraine kamar yadda ta yi da George W. Bush da yakin Iraki na Tony Blair a 2003.
Tsoffin ƴan mulkin mallaka suna auna maganganun da ake yi a yanzu game da haƙƙin ɗan adam bisa ga tarihin mulkin mallaka na manyan ƙasashen yamma kuma suna ganin yana so. A lokacin Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, don ci gaba da ba wa sojojin Burtaniya abinci, Burtaniya ta yi watsi da yunwa a Bengal wanda ya kashe Indiyawan kusan miliyan huɗu - bala'i mafi girma na ƙarni na 20 a cikin ƙasa. Firayim Minista Winston Churchill ya yi watsi da roko daga mataimakinsa biyu da suka gaje shi da Sakataren Harkokin Wajen Burtaniya na Indiya don jigilar abinci cikin gaggawa zuwa Bengal. Shashi Tharoor- tsohon babban jami'in Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, marubuci kuma a halin yanzu memba ne a majalisar dokokin Indiya - ya yi magana ga Indiyawan da yawa a cikin tambaya, a cikin op-ed. The Washington Post a cikin 2018, dalilin da yasa Hollywood ke bikin rayuwar wani mai kisan kai tare da fim din Churchill.
Nuremberg da Tokyo sun kasance misalin adalcin masu nasara bayan yakin duniya na biyu. Wannan ya faru ne saboda ma'auni biyu da aka bayyana a cikin masu nasara suna sanya shugabanni da janar-janar na mulkin da aka ci nasara amma ba nasu ba. Adalci na nasara ne kuma ta ma'anar cewa lissafin siyasa ya tsara shawarar waɗanda suka yi nasara a kan wanene daga cikin shugabanni da janar-janar da aka sha kaye za su fuskanci shari'a. Duk da haka, bisa ka'idojin tarihi, kotunan biyu sun yi fice wajen bai wa shugabannin da suka sha kaye damar kare ayyukansu a gaban kotu maimakon a aika da su don aiwatar da hukuncin kisa.
Duk wanda yake son fahimtar zurfafa zurfafa zurfafa zurfafa tunani na mutane da yawa a Kudancin Duniya game da dogaro da kai ga keɓantacciyar Amurka da Yammacin Yamma ya kamata ya karanta. The Blood Telegram (2013) na Gary Bass game da halin ko in kula na Shugaba Richard Nixon da Sakataren Harkokin Wajen Amurka Henry Kissinger game da abubuwan da suka faru na kisan kiyashi a Gabashin Pakistan a 1971, kamar yadda cikakken bayani a cikin telegram daga Babban Jakadan Amurka Archer Blood (don haka sunan littafin) da abokan aikinsu 19 daga ofishin jakadancin, Hukumar Ba da Agaji ta Amurka da Sabis na Watsa Labarai a Dhaka.
Ba abin mamaki bane cewa a cikin binciken Chatham House na fitattun hasashe, sabanin Turawa wadanda suka jaddada “jagorancin dabi’a” na tarihi na Amurka, yawancin manyan Asiya suna kallon Amurka a matsayin munafunci, wuce gona da iri, mai girman kai da rashin sha’awar wasu, tare da matsawa manufofinta fifiko a maimakon haka.
Hanyoyi masu cin karo da juna na zaman lafiya da adalci
Hanyoyi na zaman lafiya da adalci na iya zama masu karo da juna. Zaman lafiya na gaba ne, warware matsaloli da haɗin kai, yana buƙatar sulhu tsakanin maƙiyan da suka gabata a cikin al'umma mai haɗaka. Adalci abin kallo ne na baya, nuna yatsa da ramuwa, yana bukatar shari’a da hukunta wadanda suka aikata laifukan da suka gabata. A cikin rikicin Libya a farkon 2011, jim kadan bayan NATO ta fara kai hare-hare ta sama da Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta ba da izini don taimakawa fararen hular Benghazi da ke fuskantar barazana, Washington ta samu masu jin dadin zaman lafiya da ke nuni da cewa Moammar Gaddafi na iya yin la'akari da raba madafun iko ko barin ofis da kasar. . Amma sai Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta mika Gaddafi da dansa zuwa kotun ICC. Wannan"boxed"Gwamnatin "zuwa wani lungu" kuma ta sa ba zai yiwu a ci gaba ba," in ji Mohamed Ismail, mai taimaka wa dan Gaddafi Seif.
Kotun hukunta manyan laifuka ta ICC ta bayar da sammacin kamo shugaban kasar Sudan Omar Hassan al-Bashir a shekara ta 2009. Kungiyar Tarayyar Afirka AU ta dauki matakin na ban mamaki na shawartar dukkanin mambobinta da kada su ba kotun ICC hadin kai kan sammacin kamo Bashir, inda ta dage cewa "ya kamata a nemi adalci. a bi ta hanyar da ta dace kada ya hana ko kawo cikas ga inganta zaman lafiya.” A shekara ta 2013, Firayim Ministan Habasha Hailemariam Desalgen ya zargi kotun ICC da "farauta" 'yan Afirka saboda jinsinsu.
Ian Paisley Jr., bisa gogewarsa a matsayinsa na wakilin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya da Tarayyar Turai a Guinea-Bissau da kuma mai sasantawa a Ireland ta Arewa, ya rubuta cewa kotun ICC ta gaza “a matsayin kayan aikin samar da zaman lafiya.” Idan da kotun ta kasance a lokacin tsarin zaman lafiya na Ireland ta Arewa, shigansa "da ya kori tsofaffin makiya har ma da kara warewa cikin tsangwama da gaba, yana ba da damar samun zaman lafiya."
Hanyoyin shari'a na laifuka suna yin haɗari da haɓaka ɓarkewar zamantakewa waɗanda suka haifar da laifuffukan kisan kiyashi, kawar da ƙabilanci da laifuffukan cin zarafin ɗan adam. Ingantacciyar tabbacin ba da kariya ga mutane ita ce warware rikice-rikice ta hanyar lumana ta hanyar ƙoƙarin siyasa, sannan kafawa da haɓaka cibiyoyin gudanar da shugabanci nagari. "Mayar da hankali na azabtarwa da azabtarwa na gwaji" yana iyakance ikon motsawa zuwa sulhu bayan rikice-rikice ta hanyar madadin hanyoyin "tabbatar da lissafi, hana maimaitawa da sulhunta al'ummomin," rubuta Richard Goldstone da Adam Smith a cikin littafinsu Cibiyoyin Shari'a na Duniya (shafi 3).
Adalci na wucin gadi
Hanyar shari'a kawai ta hanyar shari'a na iya kamawa da dakatar da al'ummomi a cikin kiyayyar da suka gabata. Hukumomin gaskiya, tsaka-tsakin tsaka-tsaki tsakanin adalcin masu nasara da afuwa na gama gari, suna ɗaukar matakin da aka zalunta. Sun taimaka wajen kafa tarihin tarihi kuma sun ba da gudummawa don tunawa da ma'anar zamani a cikin tarihin ƙasa na Chile da Afirka ta Kudu.
Lamarin na ƙarshe yana da koyarwa musamman saboda ƙasar wariyar launin fata ta kasance ƙasa da ƙasa sanadin cutar na dogon lokaci. Afirka ta Kudu ta zabi kafa hukumar da majalisar dokoki ta kafa, ba wai kwamitin shugaban kasa kadai ba. Hukumar gaskiya da sulhu (TRC) tana da ikon sammaci wanda ke dauke da karas na cikakken afuwa amma kuma sandar gurfanar da masu laifi. An gudanar da taron jin ra'ayoyin jama'a a ƙarƙashin bishiyoyi masu duhu a ƙauyuka da kuma a cikin majami'u (tare da alamar tuba da gafara) waɗanda aka watsa ta talabijin ga masu sauraron duniya. Ga yawancin wadanda abin ya shafa ita ce dama ta farko ta ba da labarinsu. Tsawon watanni 30 TRC ta kasance da labarin kasa: mai ban sha'awa, riko, mai raɗaɗi-da cathartic.
Tsarin adalci na rikon kwarya na Rwanda ya gudana ta cikin gida gaba tsarin kotunan mutane, wanda babban burinsu ba shine ya tantance laifi ba amma don dawo da jituwa da zaman lafiya. Mozambique kuma tana ba da misalan nasara na dabarun warkar da jama'a.
Dukkanin shari'o'in guda uku suna wakiltar yunƙurin ganganci ta hanyoyin zamantakewa da siyasa don gujewa tashe-tashen hankula da ke fitowa daga rikice-rikicen siyasa na shekaru da yawa da suka kunno kai game da asalin al'umma. Rikodin da suke da shi na kawo rufe gadar zalunci mai tsauri a cikin al'ummomin da ke fama da rikici ya fi na cibiyoyin shari'ar laifuka na duniya.
Yawancin ayyukan adalci
Adalci yana da wasu ayyuka da yawa da zai iya takawa fiye da kawo masu laifi kawai: yarda da wahalar da waɗanda abin ya shafa, ilmantar da jama'a, da hana aikata ta'asa a gaba. Allied da Axis iko daga yakin duniya na biyu suna cikin zaman lafiya ba duk da Nuremberg da Tokyo kotunan, amma kuma saboda adalci share hanyar yin sulhu.
Ba zai yiwu a sami dawwamammen zaman lafiya ba tare da hukunta masu laifi ba. Koyaya, waɗannan ba hukunce-hukuncen doka ba ne kawai amma zaɓin siyasa mai zurfi tare da sarƙaƙƙiyar ciniki. Tashin hankali-tsakanin zaman lafiya, adalci ko sulhu, ko zaman lafiya da sulhu ta hanyar adalci-dole ne a daidaita su bisa ga shari'a. Da'a na hukunci yana sanya wajibai na gurfanar da mutane a kan laifukan da suka gabata. Da'a na alhakin yana ƙaddamar da buƙatu mai ƙima don yin hukunci da hikimar wasu hanyoyin aiki kan jituwar zamantakewa da kwanciyar hankali ta siyasa a yau da nan gaba.
Gwajin laifuka ga masu gine-gine, hukumar gaskiya ga sauran
Ta yaya duk wannan ya shafi zamanin Covid?
Lallai akwai kamanceceniya da yaƙe-yaƙe masu ɗaci da rikicin bangaranci. Mun ga tsattsauran ra'ayi na siyasa, aiwatar da tsauraran matakan kulle-kulle da umarnin rufe fuska tare da wuce gona da iri da kuma cin tara mai yawa nan take, da kuma rugujewar rukunonin jama'a inda a da suka kasance masu haɗin kai. Iyalai sun watse kuma an hana su damar yin baƙin ciki tare saboda mutuwar kaɗaici na ƙaunatattuna, abokantaka da yawa sun balle kuma kasuwancin uwa da na pop sun rufe.
Muna buƙatar, da farko, yin lissafin laifi ga manyan shugabanni da jami'ai da ke da alhakin aiwatar da mafi munin manufofin Covid. Babu Majalisar Dattijai ko Hukumar Sarauta a Ostiraliya da Burtaniya, ko kwamitin shugaban kasa ko binciken Majalisa a Amurka, da alama ba zai iya tabbatar da "daidai da manufa." Tsawon lokacin matakan gaggawa, ma'auni na lalacewa da zurfin rauni yana da girma sosai don haka.
A ganina, mutanen da ya kamata su sami kansu a cikin tashar jiragen ruwa da ake tuhuma da laifukan manufofin Covid sun hada da Firayim Ministan Kanada Justin Trudeau da, a Ostiraliya, mutane kamar Daniel Andrews, Firayim Ministan Victoria, Michael Gunner, Babban Ministan Yankin Arewa da Brad Hazzard, Ministan lafiya na New South Wales.
A cikin Satumba 2021, Trudeau ya yi Allah wadai da 'yan Kanada da ke zanga-zangar adawa da umarnin rigakafin kamar yadda "wariyar launin fata, misogynistic," "anti-vaxxer mobs" da "extremists.” A cikin Janairu 2022, ya kori ayarin motocin 'Yancin da suka sauka a Ottawa a matsayin “ tsirarun mutane ne… ra'ayoyin da ba za a yarda da su ba.” Kanada ta ɗora mafi munin hukunci na kowace ƙasa mai mulkin demokraɗiyya a duniya ta hanyar daskarewa kadarorin kudi da asusun banki na masu zanga-zangar da ma duk wanda ya ba su kudi, ba tare da bukatar umarnin kotu ba. Duk da haka, ina sha'awar Ma'anar sunan farko Trudeau. A yayin taron G20 da aka yi a Bali a watan Nuwamba, an rubuta shi yana gaya wa shugaban kasar Sin Xi Jinping cewa: "A Kanada mun yi imani da tattaunawa cikin 'yanci da bude ido."
Andrews ya lura da wasu fitattun wuraren da 'yan sanda suka wuce gona da iri da rashin tausayi ga masu zanga-zangar lumana a ko'ina cikin duniyar dimokuradiyya.
A Yuli 29, 2021, hadari Ya ce:
kana da tsananin son kai idan kana tunanin ba za ka iya yin allurar ba don kawai ba ka son a yi maganin alurar riga kafi, to ya kamata ka yi tunanin abin da kake yi wa iyalinka da al'umma, kuma zan ce ko da fiye da haka, wane irin boye kake da shi, wane matsayi na ban dariya shi ne, lokacin da za ka sanya ma’aikatan lafiya cikin hadari, kuma idan ka yi rashin lafiya za ka sa ran zuwa asibiti a biya masu biyan haraji.
Gunner ya shiga cikin wani anti-vaxxer narkewa a ranar Nuwamba 22, 2021. In wannan video na bacin rai, yana kallon kowane inch mai tsaurin ido:
Idan ka ba da haske kore, ba da ta'aziyya ga, goyi bayan duk wanda ke jayayya da maganin, kai anti-vaxxer ne. Matsayin rigakafin ku na sirri ba shi da mahimmanci…. Idan kun kasance a can ta kowace hanya, siffa ko tsari na yaƙin neman zaɓe, to, kun kasance cikakken anti-vax. Idan ka ce pro-lallashi, cika shi. Tuke shi…. Ba zan taba ja da baya daga tallafawa alluran rigakafi ba, kuma duk wanda ya zo wurin wa'adin, kai anti-vax ne.
A ranar 6 ga Janairu, 2022, ya yi fatali da shi labari "Mutanen da ba a yi musu allurar rigakafin cutar ba suna ba da babbar hadarin yada kwayar cutar kuma sun fi fuskantar hadarin kamuwa da cuta mai tsanani idan sun kamu da kwayar." Don wasu dalilai marasa ma'ana, masu binciken gaskiyar sun rasa hakan.
Bugu da kari, muna kuma buƙatar kwatankwacin TRC don babban rukunin manyan “masu tasiri na kiwon lafiya” na masana cututtukan cututtuka da ƙwararrun likitoci, ƙwararrun ƙwararrun jama'a, shugabannin ƙungiyoyin jama'a da kamfanoni masu zaman kansu waɗanda suka ba da umarnin rigakafin, da masu sharhi kan kafofin watsa labarai waɗanda suka bayar. cikakkiya ga masu cin zarafi na cikin su don kunyata, zage-zage, tarwatsawa da kuma raunata duk wanda ya kuskura ya yi tunanin kansa kuma ya ki tafiya tare don samun jituwa.
A guntun sigar An buga shi Mai kallo Ostiraliya.
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Ramesh Thakur, Babban Babban Masanin Cibiyar Brownstone, tsohon Mataimakin Sakatare-Janar na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ne, kuma farfesa na farko a Makarantar Siyasa ta Crawford, Jami'ar Kasa ta Australiya.
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